The civil rights movement is a series of world political movements for equality before the law, culminating in the 1960s. In many situations they are characterized by nonviolent protests, or have taken the form of a civil resistance campaign aimed at achieving change through non-violent forms of resistance. In some situations, they have been accompanied, or followed, by civil unrest and armed rebellion. The process has been long and weak in many countries, and many of these movements have not, or have not, fully accomplished their goals, although the efforts of these movements have led to an improvement in the legal rights of some of the groups of oppressed people before. , in some places.
The main objectives of the successful civil rights movement and other social movements for civil rights include ensuring that the rights of all and equally protected by law. This includes but not limited to minority rights, women's rights, and LGBT rights.
Video Civil rights movements
Movement for civil rights in Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland is part of the British Empire that has witnessed violence for decades, known as the Problem, arising from the tension between the English majority (Unionis, Protestant) and Irish minority (Nationalist, Catholic) after Partition of Ireland in 1920.
The civil rights struggle in Northern Ireland can be traced to activists in Dungannon, led by Austin Currie, who are fighting for equal access to public housing for members of the Catholic community. This domestic issue will not cause a civil rights struggle if it were not for the fact that being a registered homeowner is a qualification for a local government franchise in Northern Ireland.
In January 1964, the Campaign for Social Justice (CSJ) was launched in Belfast. The organization joins the struggle for better housing and is committed to ending discrimination in employment. CSJ promises the Catholic community that their cries will be heard. They challenge the government and promise that they will take their case to the Commission on Human Rights in Strasbourg and to the United Nations.
After starting with basic domestic issues, the civil rights struggle in Northern Ireland increased to a full-scale movement that found its embodiment at the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association. NICRA campaigned in the late sixties and early seventies, consciously modeling itself in the American civil rights movement and using similar methods of civil resistance. NICRA organizes parades and protests to demand equal rights and end discrimination.
NICRA initially has five major demands:
- one person, one vote
- end discrimination in housing
- ending discrimination in local government
- ending the conspiracy of district boundaries, which limits the effects of Catholic voting
- B-Special dissolution, fully Protestant police protection, considered sectarian.
All of these specific demands are addressed to the ultimate goal of being one of the women at the beginning: the end of discrimination.
Civil rights activists across Northern Ireland soon launched a civil resistance campaign. There is opposition from Loyalists, who is assisted by the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), the Northern Ireland police force. At this point, RUC is over 90% Protestant. The violence escalated, resulting in the emergence of the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) from the Catholic community, a group that reminded those of the War of Independence and the Civil War that took place in the 1920s that had launched a violent campaign to end Britain. ruled in Northern Ireland. Loyalist Paramilitaries countered this with a campaign of defensive violence and the British government responded with a policy of unlawful detention of suspected IRA members. For more than 300 people, the airing lasts several years. Most of the people who were interned by British troops were Catholics. In 1978, in a case brought by the Irish Republican government to the Royal Government of England, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that the interrogation technique approved for use by British soldiers on internment in 1971 amounted to "inhuman and degrading" treatment.
The IRA encouraged Republicans to join the movement for civil rights but never controlled NICRA. The Northern Irish Civil Rights Association struggles to end discrimination against Catholics and does not take a position on the legitimacy of the state. Republican leader Gerry Adams later explained that Catholics see that it is possible for them to hear their demands. He wrote that "we can see examples of the fact that you not only have to take it, you can fight back". For an account and criticism of the civil rights movement in Northern Ireland, which reflects the ambiguous relationship between the cause of civil rights and the opposition to unity with Britain, see Richard English.
One of the most important events in the era of civil rights in Northern Ireland took place in Derry, which increased the conflict from peaceful civil disobedience into armed conflict. The Bogside battle began on 12 August when an Apprentice boy, a Protestant order, paraded past Waterloo Place, where a large crowd gathered at the mouth of William Street, on the edge of Bogside. Different accounts describe the outbreak of the first violence, with reports stating that it was an attack by youths from Bogside at RUC, or fighting broke out between Protestants and Catholics. Violence increases and barricades are established. Proclaiming this district to Free Derry, Bogsiders fights with RUC for days using rocks and gasoline bombs. The government eventually withdrew the RUC and replaced it with the army, which dispersed a crowd of Catholics barricaded in Bogside.
Bloody Sunday, 30 January 1972, in Derry was seen by some as a turning point in the movement for civil rights. Fourteen unarmed Catholic civil protesters who protested against the internees were shot dead by British soldiers and many were injured on the streets.
The peace process has made significant progress in recent years. Through open dialogue from all sides, a state of ceasefire by all major paramilitary groups has taken place. A stronger economy raises the living standards of Northern Ireland. The issue of civil rights has become less of a concern for many people in Northern Ireland over the last 20 years because laws and policies protect their rights, and forms of affirmative action, have been applied to all government offices and many private businesses. Tensions are still present, but most citizens are no longer affected by violence.
Maps Civil rights movements
Canada Quiet Canadian Revolution
The 1960s brought strong political and social changes to the Canadian province of Quebec, with the election of Liberal Prime Minister Jean Lesage after the death of Maurice Duplessis, whose government was widely perceived as corrupt. These changes include the secularization of the education and health care system, both controlled by the Roman Catholic Church, whose support for Duplessis and the corruption it feels has infuriated many Quà ©  © bÃÆ'  © cois. The policies of the Liberal government also seek to give Quebec more economic autonomy, such as the nationalization of Hydro-QuÃÆ'  © bec and the creation of public companies for the mining, forestry, iron/steel and petroleum industries in the province. Other changes include the creation of the Quebec Résour (Quebec Retirement Plan) and the new employment code that simplify unification and entitle workers to strike.
The social and economic changes of the Calm Revolution gave life to the Quebec sovereignty movement, as more and more Quà ©  © bÃÆ' © cois saw themselves as a distinct cultural distinction from other parts of Canada. Segregationist Parti Quà ©  © bÃÆ' © cois was created in 1968 and won the Quebec elections of 1976. They passed a law intended to perpetuate French as the language of business in the province, while also controversially restricting the use of English in the sign- sign and limit the students' eligibility to be taught in English.
A radical line of French Canadian nationalism resulted in the Front de libÃÆ' Â © ration du QuÃÆ' Â © bec (FLQ), which since 1963 has used terrorism to make Quebec a sovereign state. In October 1970, in response to the arrest of some of its members earlier in the year, FLQ abducted British diplomat James Cross and Quebec's Minister of Labor, Pierre Laporte, whom they later killed. The then Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau, a Canadian Frenchman, ran the War of Action Act, declared martial law in Quebec, and arrested the kidnappers by the end of the year.
Movement for civil rights in the United States
The movement for civil rights in the United States includes recorded legislation and organized efforts to eliminate racial discrimination against citizens and private and other aggrieved groups between 1954 and 1968, particularly in the southern United States. Sometimes referred to as the Second Reconstruction era, it refers to unresolved issues in the Reconstruction Era (1863-77).
Ethnicity equity issue
Integrationism
After 1890, Jim Crow's system of deprivation of rights, and second-class citizenship degraded the rights of African-American citizenship, especially in the South. That is the lowest point of the American race relationship. There are three main aspects: racial segregation - upheld by the decision of the United States Supreme Court in Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896 -, legally mandated by the southern government - suppression of voting or repeal of rights in the southern states, and acts of personal violence and mass racial violence aimed at African Americans, unhindered or encouraged by governmental authorities. Although racial discrimination occurs nationally, the combination of laws, acts of public and private discrimination, marginal economic opportunities, and violence directed at African-Americans in the southern states are known as Jim Crow.
Recorded strategies used before 1955 include litigation and lobbying efforts by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). These efforts were characteristic of the early American Civil Rights Movement from 1896 to 1954. However, in 1955, blacks became frustrated by the gradual approach to implementing desegregation by the federal and state governments and the "great resistance" by whites. Black leaders adopt a joint strategy of direct action with nonviolence, sometimes resulting in nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience. Some acts of nonviolence and civil disobedience resulted in a crisis situation between practitioners and government authorities. Federal, state and local government authorities often act with an immediate response to end a crisis situation - sometimes for the good of practitioners. Some forms of protest and/or civil disobedience carried out include boycotts, as was done by Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956) in Alabama who gave this movement one of the more famous icons in Rosa Parks; "Sit-in", as shown by two influential events, Greensboro sitting-in (1960) in North Carolina and Nashville sitting in Nashville, Tennessee; The influential 1963 Children's Crusade, where children were attacked by local authorities with fire hoses and attack dogs, and longer marches, as shown by Selma to Montgomery marses (1965) in Alabama that was initially opposed and attacked by state and local authorities and resulted in the 1965 Constitution Act. Evidence of attitude change can also be seen throughout the country, where small businesses have sprung up in favor of the Civil Rights Movement, like Lunchetteette All New Jersey People.
In addition to the Children's and Selma Crusades for Montgomery's march, another notable event of the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s was March in Washington for Jobs and Freedom in August 1963. It is best remembered for Martin's "I Have a Dream" speech Luther. King, Jr. in which the speech turns into a national text and covers the issues that the organizer must bring to move forward. It has become a complicated matter to bring together leaders of civil, religious and labor rights groups. In accordance with the name of the parade, many compromises must be made to unite followers of various causes. "March in Washington for Work and Freedom" emphasizes the combined goal of the parade and the goals intended by each leader. The 1963 March in Washington organizers and organizational leaders, informally named "Big Six", are A. Philip Randolph, Roy Wilkins, Martin Luther King Jr., Whitney Young, James Farmer and John Lewis. Though they come from different backgrounds and political interests, these organizers and leaders are serious about the peace of the march, which has its own marshal to ensure that the event will be peaceful and respectful of the law. The success of the parade is controversial, but one aspect that has been raised is mistaken for women. Many feminine civil rights groups have participated in parade organizations, but when it comes to actual activity, women are denied the right to speak and are relegated to a figurative role backstage. As noted by some female participants, March can be remembered for the speech "I Have a Dream" but for some women activists it is a new awakening, forcing black women not only to fight for civil rights but also to engage in feminist movements.
Records of achievement of the Civil Rights Movement including triumphal trials in case of Brown v. Board of Education that annulled the "separate but equal" law articles and made legal separation not authorized, and section 1964 of the Civil Rights Act. which prohibits discrimination in labor practices and public accommodation, the passing of the 1965 Voting Rights Act that restores voting rights, and part of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 that prohibits discrimination in the sale or rental of housing.
Black Power Movement
In 1967, the emergence of the Black Power movement (1966-75) began to gradually eclipse the original "united forces" purpose of the successful Civil Rights Movement that Martin Luther King Jr. had embraced. and others. Black Power advocates argue for self-determination, and assert that inherent assimilation in integration robs the inheritance and general dignity of Africans. For example, theorists and activists Omali Yeshitela argue that Africans historically struggle to protect their land, culture, and freedom from European colonizers, and that any integration into societies that have stolen others and their wealth is an act of betrayal.
Today, most Black Power supporters do not change their self-sufficiency argument. Racism still exists throughout the world, and some people believe that blacks in the United States, as a whole, are not assimilated to the "mainstream" US culture. Blacks are arguably becoming increasingly oppressed, this time in part by their "own" people in a new, middle-class black layer and ruling class. Supporters of Black Power generally argue that the reason for the impasse and further suppression of the majority of blacks is that Black Power's goal does not have the opportunity to be fully exercised.
One of the most common manifestations of the Black Power movement took place at the 1968 Olympics, when two African-Americans, Tommie Smith and John Carlos, stood on the podium performing Black Power salute. This action is still remembered today as the Black Power Olympic 1968 salute.
Chicano Movement
The Chicano movement occurred during the era of civil rights seeking political empowerment and social inclusion for Mexican-Americans around a generally nationalist argument. The Chicano movement developed in the 1960s and was active until the late 1970s in various regions of the US. This movement is rooted in the civil rights struggle that preceded it, adding it to the culture of culture and the generation of that era.
The early heroes of the movement - Rodolfo Gonzalez in Denver and Reies Tijerina in New Mexico - adopted historical records about one hundred and twenty-five years earlier that have obscured much of Mexican-American history. Gonzales and Tijerina embraced nationalism that identified the failure of the United States government to fulfill its promises in the Guadalupe Hidalgo Treaty. In that account, Mexican Americans are conquered people who only need to reclaim their birthright and cultural heritage as part of a new state, later known as AztlÃÆ'¡n.
The past version does not, but takes into account the history of the Mexicans who immigrated to the United States. It also paid little attention to the rights of illegal immigrants in the United States in the 1960s - not surprisingly, since immigration lacked the political meaning it acquired. A decade later when activists, such as Bert Corona in California, embraced the rights of undocumented workers and helped expand the movement to include their issues.
When the movement was handled with practical problems in the 1960s, most activists focused on the most pressing issues facing Mexican Americans; unequal opportunities for education and employment, the removal of political rights, and police brutality. In the late 1960s, when the student movement was active worldwide, the Chicano movement brought more spontaneous action, such as mass strikes by high school students in Denver and East Los Angeles in 1968 and Chicano. Moratorium in Los Angeles in 1970.
This movement was very strong at the college level, where activists formed MEChA, Movimiento Estudiantil Chicano de AztlÃÆ'¡n, which promoted the Chicano Study program and the general ethno-nationalist agenda.
American Indian Movement
At a time when the rally was a common protest tactic, the takeover of the American Indian Movement (AIM) in their early days was violent. Some appear to be spontaneous results of protest meetings, but others include armed robbery of public facilities.
The occupation of Alcatraz Island in 1969, although generally associated with NAM, pre-dated the organization, but was a catalyst for its formation.
In 1970, AIM occupied the abandoned property at Naval Air Station near Minneapolis. In July 1971, he assisted in the takeover of the Winter Dam, Lac Courte Oreilles, and Wisconsin. When activists took over the Head Office of Indian Affairs in Washington, D.C. in November 1972, they fired the building and 24 people were arrested. Activists occupied the Cement County Courthouse in 1973, although the police channeled the occupation after the riots.
In 1973 activists and military forces faced each other in the wounded Injured incident. The conflict lasted for 71 days, and two people were killed in the violence.
Gender equity issues
If the period associated with first wave feminism focuses on absolute rights such as suffrage (which causes women to reach the right to vote in the early 20th century), the second wave of feminism is concerned with issues such as changes in social attitudes and economic equality, reproduction , and education (including the ability to have a career other than motherhood, or the right to choose not to have children) between the sexes and addressing the rights of women's minorities. The new feminist movement, spanning from 1963 to 1982, explored economic equality, political power at all levels, professional equality, reproductive freedom, problems with family, educational equality, sexuality, and many other issues.
LGBT rights and gay release
Since the mid-19th century in Germany, social reformers have used civil rights languages ​​to oppose the suppression of same-sex sexuality, same-sex emotional intimacy, and gender differences. Most, but not exclusively, the LGBT movement has been characterized gender variant and people oriented homosexuals as a minority group (s); this is the approach taken by the homophile movement of the 1940s, 1950s and early 1960s. With the rise of secularism in the West, the increase of sexual openness, the liberation of women, the counter-1960s, the AIDS epidemic, and new social movements, the homophile movement is undergoing rapid growth and transformation, focusing on community development and unenthusiastic activism known as the Gay Liberation.
The words "Gay Liberation" echo "Liberation of Women"; The Gay Liberation Front consciously took its name from the "National Liberation Front" of Vietnam and Algeria, and the slogan "The Power of the Gay", as a challenging answer to the rights-oriented homophile movement inspired by Black Power and Chicano Power. GLF destination statement explains:
We are a revolutionary group of men and women who are formed with the realization that complete sexual liberation for all people can not happen unless the existing social institutions are abolished. We reject community efforts to impose our sexual role and definition of nature.
Aktivis GLF Martha Shelley menulis,
We are women and men who, from the earliest days of our memory, have rebelled against the sex-role structure and core family structure.
Gay liberation aims to change the basic concepts and institutions of society, such as gender and family. To achieve such liberation, awareness-raising and immediate action are employed. In particular, the word 'gay' is preferable from the previous mention such as homosexual or homophilia; some see 'gay' as a rejection of a fake heterosexual/homosexual dichotomy. Lesbians and gays are urged to "get out" and openly express their sexuality to family, friends and colleagues as a form of activism, and to fight shame with gay pride. The "Lib Libyan" group was formed in Australia, New Zealand, Germany, France, Britain, the USA, Italy and elsewhere. Lesbian group Lavender Menace was also formed in the US in response to male dominance from other Lib Lib groups and anti-lesbian sentiments in the Women's Movement. Lesbianism is recommended as a feminist option for women, and the first stream of lesbian separatism begins to emerge.
In the late 1970s, Gay Liberation radicalism was hampered by the return of a more formal movement known as the Gay and Lesbian Rights Movement.
Soviet Union
In the 1960s, the early years of Brezhnev's stagnation, dissidents in the Soviet Union were increasingly turning their attention to civil issues and ultimately human rights. The struggle for civil rights and human rights focused on issues of freedom of expression, freedom of conscience, freedom to emigrate, psychiatric punishment, and the fate of political prisoners. It is characterized by a new openness of dissent, concern for legality, resistance to 'underground' struggle and violence. It played an important role in providing the same language and purpose for many Soviet dissidents, and became the cause of various social groups in different environments, from activists in youth subcultures to academics such as Andrei Sakhrarov.
Significantly, Soviet dissidents in the 1960s introduced a "legalist" approach to avoiding moral and political commentaries that favored close attention to legal and procedural matters. After several trials of the authors (the Sinyavsky-Daniel trial, the trials of Alexander Ginzburg and Yuri Galanskov) and the crackdown associated with dissidents by the KGB, the range of arrests and trials in samizdat (unapproved press) became more common. This activity eventually led to the founding of the Chronic Current Events in April 1968. The unofficial newsletter reported civil rights violations and court procedures by the Soviet government and responses to such abuses by citizens throughout the Soviet Union.
Throughout the 1960s-1980s, dissidents in the civil and human rights movement were involved in various activities: Documentation of political oppression and violation of rights in samizdat (unapproved press); individual and collective letters of protest and petition; unapproved demonstrations; an informal network of mutual assistance for prisoners of conscience; and, most notably, civilian oversight groups attracting the international community. All of these activities come with great personal risks and with impacts ranging from dismissal from work and studies to years of imprisonment in labor camps and subject to psychiatric punishment.
A rights-based distinction strategy to join the idea of ​​human rights. The human rights movement includes such figures as Valery Chalidze, Yuri Orlov, and Lyudmila Alexeyeva. Specific groups were established such as the Initiative Group for the Defense of Human Rights at the USSR (1969) and the Human Rights Committee at the USSR (1970). Despite the loss of many prison members, forced labor camps, psychiatric and exile institutions, they documented abuses, wrote appeals to international human rights bodies, collected signatures for petitions, and attended the hearing.
The signing of the Helsinki Agreement (1975) which contains human rights clauses gives civil rights fighters new hope to use international instruments. This led to the creation of a dedicated Helsinki Supervisory Group in Moscow (Moscow Helsinki Group), Kiev (Ukrainian Helsinki Group), Vilnius (Lithuanian Helsinki Group), Tbilisi, and Erevan (1976-77).
Prague Spring
The Prague Spring (Czech: Pre? SkÃÆ' Â © jaro , Slovak: Pre? SkÃÆ'¡ jar , Russian: ???????????) is the period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia began on 5 January 1968, and lasted until August 20 of that year, when the Soviet Union and allies of the Warsaw Pact (except Romania) invaded the country.
During World War II, Czechoslovakia fell into the sphere of Soviet influence, the Eastern Bloc. Since 1948 there has been no party other than the Communist Party in the country and indirectly administered by the Soviet Union. Unlike other countries in Central and Eastern Europe, the communist takeover in Czechoslovakia in 1948, though brutal as elsewhere, was a genuine folk movement. The reforms in the country do not lead to the seizures seen in Hungary.
Toward the end of World War II Joseph Stalin wanted Czechoslovakia, and signed an agreement with Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt that Prague would be freed by the Red Army, despite the fact that the US Army under General George S. Patton could have liberated the city before. This is important for the spread of pro-Russian (and pro-communist) propaganda that came just after the war. One still remembers what they felt as treasury of Czechoslovakia by the West at the Munich Agreement. For these reasons, the people voted for communism in the 1948 elections, the last democratic election took place there for a long time.
From the mid-1960s, the Czechs and Slovaks showed signs of rejection of the regime. This change is reflected by the reformist elements within the communist party by installing Alexander Dub? Ek as party leader. Dub's reform of the political process within Czechoslovakia, which he called Socialism with a human face, did not represent the overthrow of the old regime as complete as it did in Hungary in 1956. Dub The oak changes received widespread support from society , including the working class, but seen by the Soviet leadership as a threat to their hegemony over other countries of the Eastern Bloc and the security of the Soviet Union. Czechoslovakia was in the center of the Warsaw Pact's line of defense and the possibility of its defection to the enemy was unacceptable during the Cold War.
However, a considerable minority in the ruling party, especially at higher levels of leadership, opposes any reduction of the party's grip on society and is actively planning with the leadership of the Soviet Union to overthrow the reformists. The group watched in horror as calls for multi-party elections and other reforms began to echo throughout the country.
Between the nights of August 20 and August 21, 1968, Eastern Bloc forces from five Warsaw Pact countries invaded Czechoslovakia. During the invasion, Soviet tanks ranging from 5,000 to 7,000 occupied the streets. They were followed by a large number of Warsaw Pact troops ranging from 200,000 to 600,000.
The Soviets insisted that they had been invited to attack the country, claiming that the loyal Czechoslovakian communists had told them they needed "brotherly aid against counter-revolution". A letter found in 1989 proves invitations to invade did exist. During the Warsaw Pact attack, 72 Czechs and Slovaks were killed (19 of them in Slovakia) and hundreds injured (until 3 September 1968). Alexander Dub? Ek asked his people not to resist. He was arrested and taken to Moscow, along with several colleagues.
Movement for Civil Rights for Indigenous Australians
Australia is inhabited by the British without the agreement or recognition of the indigenous population. The laws and policies of the Australian Government further deny the citizenship of indigenous peoples, voting rights and land rights, and instead attempt to create a single, uniform white culture with the White Australia Policy and forcible transfer of Aboriginal children from their families (See article on Stolen Generations and Intervention). Like other international civil rights movements, the impetus for advancement has involved protests (See Freedom Ride (Australia) and Aboriginal Embassy) and see the unrest in response to social injustice (See Redfern 2004 riots and the death of Palm Island 2004 in in detention Despite significant progress in improving discriminatory laws, Indigenous Australians continue to be in a disadvantage compared to their non-native counterparts, on key measures such as life expectancy, infant mortality, health, and education and employment..
See also
- Civil and political rights
- The 1968 protest
Note
Further reading
- Manfred Berg and Martin H. Geyer; Two Cultural Rights: Quest for Inclusion and Participation in Modern America and Germany Cambridge University Press, 2002
- Jack Donnelly and Rhoda E. Howard; International Handbook of Human Rights Greenwood Press, 1987
- David P. Forsythe; Human Rights in New Europe: Problems and Progress University of Nebraska Press, 1994
- Joe Foweraker and Todd Landman; Citizenship Rights and Social Movement: Comparative and Statistical Analysis Oxford University Press, 1997
- Mervyn Frost; Representing Human Rights: Global Civil Society and Society of Democratic Countries Routledge, 2002
- Marc Galanter; Competing Equality: Law and Class Reversed in India University of California Press, 1984
- Raymond D. Gastil and Leonard R. Sussman, eds.; Freedom in the World: Political Rights and Civil Liberties, 1986-1987 Greenwood Press, 1987
- David Harris and Sarah Joseph; the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and Law of the United Kingdom Clarendon Press, 1995
- Steven Kasher; Civil Rights Movement: History of Photography (1954-1968) Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.), 2000
- Francesca Klug, Keir Starmer, Stuart Weir; Three Pillars of Freedom: Political Rights and Freedom in Great Britain Routledge, 1996
- Fernando Santos-Granero and Frederica Barclay; Frontier Tamed: Economy, Society, and Civil Rights at Upper Amazonia Westview Press, 2000
- Paul N. Smith; Feminism and the Third Republic: Women's Civil and Political Rights in France, 1918-1940 Clarendon Press, 1996
- Jorge M. Valadez; Prestigious Democracy: Political Legitimacy and Self-Determination in Multicultural Societies Westview Press, 2000
External links
- We Will Overcome: Historic Sites of Civil Rights Movement, National Park Service Find Our Heritage With Us at Travel Schedule
- Columbia University Resources for Teaching African American History
- Martin Luther King, Jr. and Global Freedom Struggle, an encyclopedia presented by Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute at Stanford University
- Altman, Andrew. "Civil rights". In Zalta, Edward N. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy .
- Channel History: Civil Rights Movement
- Civil Rights: Beyond Black & amp; White - slideshow by Life magazine
- Digital Library of Civil Rights from the Georgia Digital Library
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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