The History of Hinduism shows a wide variety of related religious traditions that originate from the Indian subcontinent especially in modern day Nepal and India. Its history overlaps or coincides with the development of religion in the Indian subcontinent since the Iron Age, with some tracing back to prehistoric religions such as the Valley Valley Indigenous Civilization. It has been called the "oldest religion" in the world. Scholars regard Hinduism as the synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with varying roots and none of the founders.
The history of Hinduism is often divided into periods of development, with the first period being that the historical Vedic religion dates from about 1900 BC to 1400 BC. The next period, between 800 BC and 200 BC, is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hinduism", and the formative period for Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. Epic Period and Early Puranic, from c. 200 BC to 500 CE, sees the classic "Golden Age" of Hinduism (c 320-650 AD), which coincides with the Gupta Empire. In this period six branches of Hindu philosophy evolved, namely Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, M? M ?? s ?, and Vedanta. Monotheistic sects like Shaivism and Vaishnavism flourished over the same period through the Bhakti movement. The period from about 650 to 1100 CE forms the earliest Classical Late or Medieval period, where classical Puranic Hinduism was founded, and Adi Shankara Advaita Vedanta, incorporating Buddhist thought into the Vedanta, marked a shift from realistic to idealistic thinking.
Hindu under both Hindu and Islamic rulers of c. 1200 to 1750 CE, saw the growing popularity of the Bhakti movement, which remains influential today. The colonial period saw the emergence of various Hindu reform movements that were partly inspired by Western movements, such as Unitarianism and Theosophy. The separation of India in 1947 was in line with religion, with the Republic of India emerging with a Hindu majority. During the 20th century, due to the Indian diaspora, a Hindu minority has formed on all continents, with the largest community in absolute numbers in the United States and Britain. In the Republic of India, Hindu nationalism has emerged as a strong political force since the 1980s, Bharatiya Janata Party formed the Government of India from 1999 to 2004, and the first state government in South India in 2006, as well as the leadership of Narendra Modi Pemerintah from 2014.
Video History of Hinduism
Roots of Hinduism
Western scholars regard Hinduism as a synthesis or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions. Among its roots is the Historical Vedic religion of the Iron Age of India itself is already a "combined product of Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations", but also the Sramana or ferry traditions of northeastern India, and Indian mesolithic and neolithic cultures, such as religion the Indus Valley Indigenous Culture, the Dravidian tradition, and local traditions and tribal religions.
After the Vedic period, between 500-200 BC and c. 300 CE, at the beginning of "Epic and Puranic" c.q. The "preclinical" period, "Hindu synthesis" appears, which incorporates "rama? Ic and the Buddhist influence and traditions that appear beneath into the fold of the Brahmin through the smriti literature." This synthesis appears under the pressure of success of Buddhism and Jainism During the first written Gupta Purana government, which was used to disseminate the "mainstream religious ideology among the pre-literate and acculturated tribes." The resulting Puranic Hinduism differs markedly from the earlier Brahmanism of the Dharma? ? strand and smritis Hinduism coexisted for centuries with Buddhism, to finally gain the upper hand at all levels in the 8th century.
From northern India, this "Hindu synthesis", and its social divide, spread to southern India and parts of Southeast Asia. It is aided by the settlement of Brahmins in the land given by local rulers, the merging and assimilating of the popular non-Vedic gods, and the Sanskritization process, where "people from many segments of society across the continent tend to adapt their religion and social life to norms. Brahmin's norm ". This assimilation process explains the vast diversity of local cultures in India "half shrouded in the cloak of closed conceptual unity."
Maps History of Hinduism
Periodization
James Mill (1773-1836), in his book The History of British India (1817), distinguishes three phases in Indian history, namely Hindu, Muslim and English civilizations. This period has been criticized, because of the misunderstanding it has caused. Another period is the division into the "ancient, classical, medieval and modern period", although this periodization also receives criticism.
Romila Thapar notes that the Hindu-Muslim-British period distribution in Indian history gave too much weight to "ruling dynasties and foreign invasions," ignoring the socio-economic histories that often exhibit strong continuity. The division in Ancient-Medieval-Modernism ignores the fact that the Muslim conquest took place between the eighth and the fourteenth centuries, while the south was never truly conquered. According to Thapar, periodization can also be based on "significant social and economic change," which is not entirely related to the change of power in power.
Smart and Michaels seem to follow the Mill period, while Flood and Muesse follow the "ancient, classical, medieval and modern" periodization. A complicated period may be as follows:
- Pre-history and Indus Valley Civilizations (until about 1750 BC);
- Vedic Period (c. 1750-500 BC);
- "Second Urbanization" (c. 600-200 BC);
- Classic Period (about 200 BC - 1200 CE);
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- Pre-classical period (about 200 BC - 300 AD);
- "Golden Age" (Kingdom of Gupta) (about 320-650 CE);
- The Late-Classic Period (about 650-1200 CE);
- the Middle Ages (c.1200-1500 CE);
- The Early Modern Period (c 1500-1850);
- Modern period (Raj England and independence) (from c.1850).
Prevedic religion (up to c 1750 BC)
Prehistoric
The earliest prehistoric religions in India that may have left traces that in Hinduism originated from Mesolithic as observed on sites such as stone paintings from Bhimbetka stone shelters dating back to 30,000 BC or older, as well as neolithic times. Some religious practices may be considered to date from 4,000 BC. Some tribal religions still exist, although "[w] e should not assume that there are many similarities between prehistoric and contemporary tribal communities".
Valley of Indus Civilizations (c.3300-1700 BCE)
Some of the Indus valley seals show swastika, which is found in other religions around the world. The phallic symbol is defined as a Hindu phallus much later it has been found in Harappan anyway.
Many seals of the Indus valley show animals. One seal shows a horned figure sitting in a posture reminiscent of Lotus's position and surrounded by animals named by the early excavator "Pashupati", a nickname of Hindu gods then Shiva and Rudra. Writing in 1997, Doris Meth Srinivasan said, "Not too many recent studies continue to refer to the seal figure as" Proto-Siva, "rejecting thus the Marshall package features proto-Shiva, including three heads.He interprets what is interpreted by John Marshall, as a non-human face but rather a bovine, perhaps a human-to-human buffalo. According to Iravatham Mahadevan, symbols 47 and 48 of the Indus script glossary The Indus Script: Text, Concordance and Table (1977) representing a sit-like human figure, can depict the South Indian god Murugan.
Given the large number of statues found in the Indus valley, some scholars believe that the Harappas worship a goddess mother who symbolizes fertility, a common practice among rural Hindus even today. However, this view has been disputed by S. Clark who saw it as an inadequate explanation of the function and construction of many of the statues.
No religious buildings or burial proofs are complicated... If there is a temple, they have not been identified. However, House - 1 in the HR - A area of ​​Lower Town Mohenjadaro has been identified as a possible temple.
Vedic Period (approx 1750-500 SM)
The usual period proposed from earlier Vedic days is dated back to the 2nd millennium BC. Vedism is a religion of sacrifice of early Indo-Aryans, speakers of Old dialect, originally from the Proto-Indo-Iranian society of the Bronze Age.
Origins
The Vedic Period, named after the Vedic religion of the Indo-Aryan, takes place from c. 1750 to 500 BC. The Indo-Aryan is a branch of the Indo-European language family, believed by many experts to be derived from the Kurgan culture of the Central Asian steppes. Indeed, the Vedic religion, including the names of certain deities, is essentially a branch of the same religious tradition as the ancient Greeks, Romans, Persians, and Germans. For example, the god Veda Dyaus Pita is a variant of the Proto-Indo-European god * Dy? Us ph 2 ter (or just * Dy? Us), from which also comes from the Greek Zeus and Roman Jupiter. Similarly, Vedic Manu and Yama are from PIE * Manu and * Yemo, also from Mannus Germanik and Ymir.
According to the Indo-European migration theory, Indo-Iran is the common ancestor of Indo-Arya and Proto-Iran. Indo-Iran is divided into Indo-Aryan and Iran around 1800-1600 BC.
The Indo-Aryans are pastoralists who migrated to northwest India after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization, Indo-Arya is a branch of Indo-Iran, originating from Andronovo culture in the Bactria-Margiana era, currently northern Afghanistan. This cultural roots go back further into the Sintashta culture, with a funeral sacrifice that shows a close alignment with the sacrificial funeral of the Rig Veda.
During the Early Vedic period (c.1500 - 1100 BC) the Vedas were pastoralists in northwest India. After 1100 BC, with the introduction of iron, the Vedic tribes moved to the Western Ganges Plain, adapting to an agrarian lifestyle. The imperfect forms of the state arose, where the Kuru tribe and tribe were the most influential. It was the unity of the tribe, which developed into the first recorded state society in South Asia around 1000 BC. This convincingly changed the Vedic heritage from the early Vedic period, gathered the Vedic hymns into the collection, and developed a new ritual that gained their position in Indian civilization as an orthodox srauta ritual, contributing to the so-called "classical synthesis" or "Hindu". fusion ".
Religion rigvedic
The Indo-Aryans brought their language and religion. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era are closely related to the hypothesized Proto-Indo-European religion, and Indo-Iranian religion. According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion may appear among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (now Uzbekistan) and (now Iran). It is "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asia and a new Indo-European element", which borrows the "typical religious beliefs and practices" of the Bactrian-Margiana Culture. At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including Indra's gods and Soma drinking rituals. According to Anthony,
Many of the qualities of the Indo-Iranian gods, Verethraghna, were transferred to Indra's adoptive god, who became the central deity of the development of Old Indic culture. The senses are the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda . He is associated more than any other god with Soma, a stimulant (probably from Ephedra) may be borrowed from a BMAC religion. The rise to fame is the hallmark of Old Indic speakers.
Oldest inscriptions in the Old Indic, the language of the Rig Veda , were found not in northwestern India and Pakistan, but in northern Syria, the location of the Mitanni kingdom. King Mitanni took the names of the Old Indication throne, and used the Old Indic technical terms used to ride horses and chariots. The term Old Term, which means "cosmos and truth order," the central concept of the Rig Veda , is also used in the mitan kingdom. And the Old Indic gods, including Indra, are also known in the kingdom of Mitanni.
Their religion was further developed as they migrated to the Ganga Plain after c. 1100 BC and become a resident farmer, then syncretizing with the indigenous culture of northern India. The Vedic religion of the Vedic period then coexists with local religions, such as the Yaksha cult, and is itself a "combined product of Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations". David Gordon White quotes three other mainstream ulama who have "pointed out" that the Vedic religion is partly derived from the Indus Valley Civilization.
Veda
The liturgy is preserved in three Samhitas Veda: Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda and Yajur-Veda. The Vedic texts are elite texts, and do not necessarily represent popular ideas or practices. Of these, the Rig-Veda is the oldest, a collection of hymns arranged between ca. 1500-1200 BC. The other two added ceremonial details for actual sacrificial execution. Atharva-Veda may also contain compositions dating from before 1000 BC. It contains material relating to domestic rituals and folk magic during that period.
These texts, as well as the great commentary on orthoprax collected at Brahmins compiled at the beginning of the first millennium BC, were transmitted by oral tradition only until its arrival, in the 4th century AD, from the Pallava and Gupta periods and by a combination of written and oral traditions since at that time.
The Hindu samskaras
... back to antiquity. Vedas, Brahmins, Grhyasutras, Dharmasutras, Smritis, and other treatises describe ceremonies, ceremonies, and customs.
The earliest manuscripts of the Vedas were Rgveda, a poetic poetic group used in the sacrificial ritual of the Vedic priesthood. Many Rigvedic hymns involve fire rituals (Agnihotra) and especially Soma offerings to the gods (Somayajna). Soma is the intestine and the god himself, like the fire of sacrifice, Agni. The sacrifice of royal horses (Ashvamedha) is the main rite of the Yajurveda.
The gods in the Rig-Veda are largely a personified concept, which is divided into two categories: the gods of nature - like the god of the weather Indra (who is also the King of the gods), Agni ("fire"), Usha ("dawn"), Surya ("sun") and Apas ("water") on the one hand, and on the other side of the asuras - the god of moral concepts - such as Partners ("contracts"), Aryaman (guest keeper, friendship and marriage), Bhaga (" ) or Varuna, the highest Asura (or Aditya). While Rigvedic deva is widely applied to most of the gods, including many of the Asuras, God is characterized as a Young God while Asuras is the Older Deity (p? Rve dev ??). In the later Vedic text, Asura becomes a demon.
Rgveda has 10 Mandalas ('books'). There is a significant variation in the language and style between family books (RV 2-7 books), book 8, "Soma Mandala" (RV 9), and more recent books 1 and 10. Old books share many a common aspect of Indo-Iranian religion, and is an important source for the reconstruction of earlier common Indo-European traditions. Especially RV 8 has a striking similarity to Avesta, which contains satire into Afghan Flora and Fauna, e.g. camel ( ÃÆ'º? ra - = Avestan u> tra ). Many of the central religious terms in Sanskrit Veda have the same language in other Balinese vocabulary vocabulary ( deva : Latin deus ; hotar : Germanic god asura : German ansuz ; yajna : Greek hagios ; < i> brahman : Norse Bragi or maybe Latin flamen etc.). In Avesta, Asura (Ahura) is considered good and Deva (Daevas) is considered an evil entity, just the opposite of the Rig Veda.
Cosmic order
Ethics in the Vedic are based on the Satya and Rta concepts. Satya is the principle of integration that is rooted in Absolute. ? ta is Satya's expression, which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything in it. Suitability? The law will enable the temporary progress of the offense will lead to punishment. Panikkar Speech:
? ta is the main foundation of everything; it is "the highest", although this is not understood in a static sense. [...] This is an expression of primordial dynamism attached to it all.... "
The term "dharma" has been used in Brahmin's thinking, where it is understood as the aspect of the Rta. The term is also known from the Proto-Indo-Iran religion, the Indo-Iranian religion before the early Veda (Indo-Arya) and Zoroastrian (Iran). Asha is the Avantan language term related to Vedic language? ta.
Upanishad
The 9th and 8th centuries BC witnessed the earliest composition of the Upanishads. The Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta (the conclusion of the Vedas). The older Upanishads launched intensified attacks of intensity on rituals; however, philosophical and allegorical meanings were also given to these rituals. In some Upanishads then there is the spirit of accommodation towards the ritual. The tendency that appears in the philosophical songs of the Vedas to reduce the number of gods into one principle becomes prominent in the Upanishads. The diverse monistic speculation of the Upanishads is synthesized into a theistic framework by the Hindu holy book Bhagavad Gita . Brahmanism
In the Iron Age of India, during the period that stretched from the 10th to the 6th century BC, the Mahajanapadas emerged from the early small kingdoms of the various Rigadika tribes, and the failed remains of the late Harapans culture. In this period the Upanishad and shramana movements
Increased urbanization of India in the 7th and 6th centuries BC led to the emergence of a new ascetic or sramana movement that challenged ritual orthodoxy. Mahavira (ca. 549-477 BC), Jainist supporters, and Buddhists (c. 563-483 BC), founders of Buddhism, are the most prominent icons of this movement. According to Heinrich Zimmer, Jainism and Buddhism are part of the pre-Vedic heritage, which also includes Samkhya and Yoga:
[Jainism] is not derived from the Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of the older pre-Aryan upper classes of northeastern India - rooted in the same subsoil of ancient metaphysical speculations such as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, other non-Vedic Indian systems.
The Samanana tradition partly creates the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara, and the concept of liberation, which characterizes Hinduism.
Pratt notes that Oldenberg (1854-1920), Neumann (1865-1915) and Radhakrishnan (1888-1975) believe that the Buddhist canon has been influenced by the Upanishads, while la Vallee Poussin thinks that influence is nil, and "Eliot and others insist that at some points the Buddha is directly opposed to the Upanishads ".
Vedic ritual survival
Vedism as a religious tradition Hinduism of the immigrant elite is marginalized by other traditions such as Jainism and later Buddhism in the Iron Age, but in the Middle Ages will rise to a new prestige with the Mimamsa school, which is also all others. > astika Hindu tradition, assumes they have no power ( apaurusheyatva ) and are immortal. The last element of the Vedic religion History or Vedism is the rauta tradition, following many of the major elements of Vedic religion and prominent in South India, with communities in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh but also in some Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and other states ; the most famous of these groups is Nambudiri of Kerala, whose tradition is mainly documented by Frits Staal.
Mauryan Kingdom
The Mauryan Period saw the beginnings of Sanskrit Sutra and classical Shastra literature and the scientific exposition of the "circum-Vedic" fields of Vedanga. However, during this time Buddhism is protected by Ashoka, who controls most of India, and Buddhism is also a mainstream religion until the period of Gupta empire.
Sanskritization
Since the Vedic era, "people from many layers of society across the continent tend to adapt their religious and social life to the norms of Brahmins", a process sometimes called Sanskritization. This is reflected in the tendency to identify local deities with the Sanskrit text gods.
Classic Hinduism (about 200 BCE-1200 CE)
Pre-classical Hinduism (about 200 BCE -320 CE)
Hindu Synthesis
Between 500-200 BC and c. 300 CE developed the "Hindu synthesis", which incorporated Sramanic and Buddhist influences and the emergence of bhakti traditions into the Brahmin folds through the literature of the smithi . This synthesis emerged under the pressure of success of Buddhism and Jainism.
According to Embree, several other religious traditions have existed side by side with the Vedic religion. These indigenous religions "finally found a place under the vestal cloak of Vedic religion". When Brahmanism declines and has to compete with Buddhism and Jainism, popular religions have an opportunity to assert themselves. According to Embree,
[T] he Brahmanis himself seems to have pushed this development to some extent as a means to meet the challenges of heterodox movements. At the same time, among the indigenous religions, the common loyalty to the Vedic authority gives a thin, but significant, thread of unity, amidst their various gods and religious practices.
Smriti
According to Larson, the Brahmins responded with assimilation and consolidation. This is reflected in the literature of smriti formed in this period. The text of the smriti during the period between 200 BC - 100 AD proclaims the authority of the Vedas, and the acceptance of the Vedas becomes the central criterion for defining Hinduism above and against heterodoxy, which rejects the Vedas. Most of the basic ideas and practices of classical Hindu religion are derived from the new literature smriti .
Of the six Hindu darsas, Mimamsa and Vedanta "are rooted mainly in the Vedic traditions of sruti and are sometimes called schools in the sense that they develop smithy , according to Hiltebeitel, "the consolidation of Hinduism occurs under the sign of > bhakti i>. "This is a Bhagavadgita that sealed this achievement.The result is a" universal achievement "which can be called smarta . see Shiva and Vishnu as "complementary in function but ontologically identical".
The main Sanskrit epics, School of Hindu philosophy
In the early centuries, some schools of Hindu philosophy were formally codified, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta.
Sangam Literature
The Sangam literature (300 BC - 300 AD) is the most secularized classical literary body in Tamil. Nevertheless there are some works, significantly Pattupathu and Paripaatal, where personal devotion to God written in the form of devotional poetry. Vishnu, Shiva and Murugan are mentioned as gods. These works are the earliest evidence of monotheistic Bhakti tradition, predating the great bhakti movement, which was given great attention in the future.
"Golden Age" (period of Gupta and Pallava) (about 320-650 CE)
During this period, power was centered, along with the growth of short-range trade, standardization of legal procedures, and the dissemination of literacy in general. Mahayana Buddhism flourished, but the orthodox Brahmin culture began to be rejuvenated by the protection of the Gupta Dynasty, which is the Vaishnavas. The reinforced Brahmin position, the first Hindu temples dedicated to the gods of the Hindu gods, appeared in the late Gupta era. During the first written Gupta Purana government, it was used to disseminate the "mainstream religious ideology among pre-literate and acculturated groups." Gupta lowered the newly emerging Puranic religion, seeking legitimacy for their dynasty. The resulting Puranist Hinduism differs markedly from earlier Brahmanism from Dharmasastras and smritis .
According to P.S. Sharma "period of Gupta and Harsha was completely formed, from a strict intellectual perspective, the most brilliant epocha in the development of Indian philosophy", as Hindu and Buddhist philosophies flourished side-by-side. Charvaka, an atheist materialist school, came to India in the north before the 8th century.
Gupta and Pallava Empires
The period of Gupta (4th to 6th centuries) sees the development of scholarships, the emergence of the classical flow of Hindu philosophy, and classical Sanskrit literature in general on topics ranging from medicine, veterinary science, mathematics, to astrology and astronomy and astrophysics. The famous Aryabhata and Varahamihira belong to this age. Gupta established a powerful central government that also enabled local level control. The Gupta people were commanded according to Hindu beliefs. This includes a strict caste system, or a class system. The peace and prosperity created under Gupta's leadership enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors.
Pallavas (4th century to 9th century), along with North Gupta, patronisers from Sanskrit in Southern subcontinent of India. The Pallava government saw the first Sanskrit inscription in a manuscript called Grantha. The early Pallavas have a different relationship with the countries of Southeast Asia. Pallavas uses the Dravidian architecture to build some of the most important Hindu temples and academies in Mamallapuram, Kanchipuram and other places; their government saw the emergence of great poets, as famous as Kalidasa.
The practice of offering temples to different gods comes into vogue followed by the architecture of temples and fine artistic sculptures (see Vastu Shastra).
Bhakti
This period saw the emergence of the Bhakti movement. The Bhakti Movement is a fast-growing bhakti beginning in Tamil Nadu in South India with Saiva Nayanars (4th to 10th centuries) and Vaisnava Alvars (3rd century to 9th century) spread bhakti poetry and devotion throughout India in the 12th to 18th centuries CE.
Expansion in Southeast Asia
The Hindu influence reached the archipelago early in the first century. At this time, India is beginning to greatly affect the countries of Southeast Asia. The trade routes connect India with southern Myanmar, central and southern Siam, low Cambodia and southern Vietnam and many urban coastal settlements were established there.
For over a thousand years, the influence of Hindu/Buddhist India is a major factor that brings a certain level of cultural unity to various countries in the region. The Pali and Sanskrit languages ​​and Indian texts, along with Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism, Brahmanism and Hinduism, are transmitted from direct contact as well as through sacred texts and Indian literature, such as the Ramayana epic and the Mahabharata.
From the 5th to the 13th century, Southeast Asia has a very strong Indian colonial kingdom and is very active in the creation of Hindu and Buddhist architecture and art. The Sri Vijaya Empire in the south and the Khmer Empire in the north compete for influence.
Langkasuka Sanskrit language for "glorious land" - sukkha "happiness") is an ancient Hindu kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula. The kingdom, along with the Old Kedah settlement, may be the earliest territorial footing established in the Malay Peninsula. According to tradition, the establishment of the kingdom occurred in the 2nd century; The Malay legend claims that Langkasuka was founded in Kedah, and then moved to Pattani.
From the 5th to 15th century, the Sri Vijayan empire, a maritime empire centered on the Indonesian island of Sumatra, has adopted the Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism under the ruling line of Sailendras. The Sri Vijaya Empire declined due to the conflict with the Chola rulers in India. The kingdom of Majapahit succeeded in Singhasari kingdom. It is one of the largest and lastest Hindu empires in Southeast Asia.
Funan is a pre-Angkor kingdom of Cambodia, located around the Mekong delta, possibly founded by Mon-Khmer settlers who speak Austroasiatics. According to reports by two Chinese envoys, K'ang T'ai and Chu Ying, the country was founded by an Indian Brahmin named Kaundinya, who in the 1st century AD was instructed in a dream to take a magic bow from a temple and defeat a Khmer queen , Soma. Soma, the daughter of the king of Nagas, marries Kaundinya and their lineage becomes the Funan royal dynasty. The myth has the advantage of providing the legitimacy of an Indian Brahmin and the divinity of the cobras, who were then considered religious by the inhabitants of the region.
The Champa kingdom (or Lin-yi in Chinese records) controls what is now south and central Vietnam from around 192 to 1697. The dominant religion of the Cham people is Hinduism and culture is heavily influenced by India.
Then, from the 9th to the 13th century, Mahayana Buddhist and Khmer Hindu Kingdom dominated most of the Southeast Asian peninsula. Under Khmer rule, more than 900 temples were built in Cambodia and in Thailand. Angkor is at the center of this development, with a complex of temples and urban organizations capable of supporting about a million inhabitants of the city. The world's largest temple complex, Angkor Wat, stands here; built by the king of Vishnuvardhan.
Late-Classic Hinduism - Puranic Hinduism (about 650-1200 CE)
- See also Latter-Classic.
After the end of the Gupta Empire and the collapse of the Harsha Empire, power became decentralized in India. Some of the larger kingdoms arose, with "countless vassal states". The kingdom is governed through the feudal system. The smaller kingdom relies on the protection of the larger kingdom. "The great king is remote, exalted and deified", as reflected in Tantric Mandala, which can also describe the king as the center of the mandala.
The disintegration of central power also led to the regionalization of religiosity, and religious competition. Cults and local languages ​​are enhanced, and the influence of "Hinduism rituals of Brahmins" is reduced. Rural movements and piety appear, along with Shaivism, Vaisnavism, Bhakti and Tantra, although "sect groups are only at the beginning of their development". Religious movements must compete for recognition by local masters. Buddhism lost its position after the 8th century, and began to disappear in India. This is reflected in the changing of the puja ceremony in court in the 8th century, where the Hindu gods replaced the Buddha as "the supreme imperial god".
Hinduism Puranik
Brahmanism Dharmashastras and smritis undergone a radical transformation in the hands of the Purana composers, which resulted in the rise of the Hindu Puranis religion, "which like the giants crossing religions, comes soon to overshadow all existing religions". Puranic Hinduism is a "multiplex belief system that grows and develops because it absorbs and synthesizes polaristic ideas and cultural traditions." It is distinguished from Vedic Smarta root by its popular basis, its theological and sectarian pluralism, Tantric veneer, and its center. place bhakti .
The early medieval puranas were devised to disseminate the main ideologies of religion among the pre-accutaniated tribal peoples who experienced acculturation. With the destruction of the Gupta empire, the prize of virgin waste land was dumped on brahmins, to ensure the agrarian exploitation of land owned by kings, but also to give status to the new ruling class. Brahmins spread further to India, interacting with local clans with different religions and ideologies. Brahmins use Purana to incorporate the clans into the agrarian and religious societies and ideologies that accompany them. According to the Flood, "[t] he Brahmana who follows puranik is known as smarta , those who worship are based on smriti , or pauranika i>, which is based on the Puranas. "The tribal chief and the local peasant are absorbed into the varna, which is used to keep" control over kshatriyas and shudra . " The Brahmin group is enlarged by combining local subgroups, such as local imams. This also leads to stratification within Brahmins, with some Brahmins having lower status than other Brahmins. The use of caste works better with the new Puranic Hinduism than with sramanic sects. The Puranic texts provide an extensive genealogy that gives status to the new kshatriyas . Buddhist myths describe government as a contract between the elected ruler and the people. And Buddha chakkavatti "is a different concept from the model of conquest possessed to kshatriyas and Rajput."
Many local religions and traditions assimilate into paranic Hinduism. Vishnu and Shiva emerged as the main deity, along with Sakti/Dewa. Vishnu includes the Narayana cult, Jagannaths, Venkateswara "and many others". Nath:
Several incarnations of Vishnu such as Matsya, Kurma, Varaha and perhaps even Nrsimha help incorporate the symbols of popular totems and myths of creation, especially those associated with wild boars, which normally permeate preliterate mythology, others such as Krsna and Balarama become instrumental in assimilating local cults and myths centered around two popular grazing gods and farms.
The transformation of Brahmanism into Hinduism Pauran in post-Gupta India is caused by the acculturation process. Purana helps to build the mainstream of religion among the pre-accumulated peoples who have acculturation. The teachings of Brahmanism and Dharmashastras underwent a radical transformation in the hands of the Purana composers, which resulted in the emergence of a mainstream "Hinduism" overshadowing all previous traditions.
Bhakti Movement
Rama and Krishna are the focus of a strong bhakti tradition, which finds its particular expression in the Purana Bhagavata. The Krishna tradition incorporates many cults of the Dragon, Yaksa and hills and trees. Siva absorbs the local cult by suffixing Isa or Isvara to the name of the local god, for example Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara. In the royal circle of the 8th century, the Buddha began to be replaced by Hindu deities in the puja. This is also the same time period when the Buddha was made Vishnu's avatar.
The first documented bhakti movement was established by Karaikkal-ammaiyar. He wrote poems in Tamil about his love for Shiva and probably lived around the 6th century. Twelve Alvars who are worshipers of Vaishnavite and sixty-three Nayanars who are Shaivite followers are caring for the newly established bhakti movement in Tamil Nadu.
During the 12th century in Karnataka, the Bhakti movement took the form of the Virashaiva movement. It was inspired by Basavanna, a Hindu reformer who created the Lingayats or Shiva sect bhaktas . During this time, the original and unique literary form of Kannada poetry called Vachanas was born.
Advaita Vedanta
Shankara (8th century AD) is considered the greatest exponent of Advaita Vedanta. Shankara himself, and his great teacher Gaudapada, was influenced by Buddhism. Gaudapda takes over the Buddhist doctrine that ultimate reality is pure consciousness and "that the nature of the world is a four-cornered negation". Gaudapada "interweaves [both doctrines] into the philosophy of Mandukya Upanishad , developed further by Shankara". Gaudapada also took over the concept of Buddha "aj? Ta" from the philosophy of Madhyamaka Nagarjuna. Shankara managed to read Gaudapada mayavada into Badarayana Brahma Sutras , "and gave it locus classicus ", against the realistic strain of Brahma Sutras >.
Shankara is the founder of Dashanami Sampradaya of the Hindu monastic and worship tradition of Shanmata . Shankara is also considered the greatest teacher and reformer of the Smartha Tradition. According to Hinduism-guide.com:
Not all Brahmins specialize in this Smriti tradition. Some are influenced by Buddhism, Jainism or Charvaka's traditions and philosophies. This does not mean that all these people reject the authority of the Vedas, but only that their traditions of worship and philosophy are not based on smriti texts. Later, Shankaracharya brought all the Vedic communities together. He tries to remove the non-smriti aspects that have crept into the Hindu community. He also attempted to unite them by declaring that one of the different Hindu gods could be worshiped, according to the recipe given in the smriti texts. He decreed that the worship of the various deities was in accordance with the Vedas and not contradictory, because all the different manifestations of one use of Brahman. Shankaracharya was instrumental in reviving interest in smritis.
In modern times, due to the influence of Western Orientalism and Perennialism on Indian Neo-Vedanta and Hindu nationalism, Advaita Vedanta has gained wide acceptance in Indian culture and beyond as a paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality.
Contacts with Persia and Mesopotamia
Hinduism as well as Buddhism and secular learning first reached Persia in an organized manner in the sixth century, when Emperor Sassanid Khosrau I (531-579) sent Borzuya the doctor as his messenger, to invite Indian and Chinese scholars to the Gundishapur Academy. Burzoe has translated Sanskrit Panchatantra. The Pahlavi version was translated into Arabic by Ibn al-Moqaffa under the title Kalila and Dimna or The Fables of Bidpai .
Under the Abbasid caliphate, Baghdad had replaced Gundishapur as the most important center of learning in the vast Islamic Empire, where tradition and ulama developed. Hindu scholars are invited to a conference on science and mathematics held in Baghdad.
The Middle Ages and Early Modern Periods (about 1200-1850 CE )
Muslim Rule
Although Islam came to the Indian subcontinent in the early seventh century with the rise of Arab traders, it began to influence Indian religions after the 10th century, and especially after the 12th century with the establishment and subsequent expansion of Islamic rule. Will Durant called the Muslim conquest of India "probably the bloodiest story in history". During this period, Buddhism declined rapidly while Hinduism faced religious violence led by the military and sponsored by the Sultan. There are practices of raids, seizures, and slavery of Hindu families, which are then sold in the Sultanate cities or exported to Central Asia. Some texts say a number of Hindus were forced to convert to Islam. Beginning with the 13th century, for a period of some 500 years, very little text, from many written by Muslim court historians, mentions any "voluntary conversion from Hinduism to Islam", indicating the insignificance and perhaps the scarcity of the conversion. Typically Hindus are enslaved to Islam to gain their freedom. Sometimes there are exceptions to religious violence against Hinduism. Akbar, for example, acknowledged Hinduism, forbidding slavery of Hindu prisoners of warfare, protecting Hindu temples, and abolishing the discriminatory Jizya (head tax) against Hindus. However, many of the Muslim rulers of the Delhi and Mughal Empire, before and after Akbar, from the 12th century to the 18th century, destroyed Hindu temples and persecuted non-Muslims.
Unify Hinduism
Hinduism underwent major changes, assisted in part by teachers such as Ramanuja, Madhva, and Chaitanya. Bhakti followers move away from the abstract concept of Brahman, which was consecrated by the philosopher Adi Shankara several centuries earlier, with an energetic and emotional devotion to more accessible avatars, especially Krishna and Rama. According to Nicholson, already between the twelfth and the twelfth centuries, "certain thinkers began to treat as a whole diverse philosophical teaching of the Upanishads, epics, Purana, and schools known retrospectively as the" six systems " i> saddarsana ) from mainstream Hindu philosophy. "Michaels notes that historicalization emerged that preceded nationalism later, articulating ideas that glorify Hinduism and the past.
Early Modern (about 1500-1850 CE)
The fall of the Vijayanagar Empire to Muslim rulers has marked the end of the Hindu imperial declaration in the Deccan. However, by making use of the overwhelming Mughal Empire (1526-1857), once again Hinduism became a political prestige, under the Maratha Empire, from 1674 to 1818.
Mughal Empire
After the Persian conquest by the Mongol Empire, a regional Turko-Persio-Mongol dynasty was formed. Just like the eastern Mongol dynasty that married locals and adopted the local Buddhist religion and Chinese culture, the group adopted the local Islamic religion and Persian culture; their descendants reigned in India as Mughal.
The official religion of the Mughal Empire State is Islam, with a preference to the jurisprudence of Madhhab Hanafi (Schools). Hinduism remained under pressure during Babur and Humanyun's rule. Sher Shah Suri, the Afghan ruler of North India is relatively unrepressive. Hinduism surfaced during the three-year rule of Hindu king 'Hemu' in 1553-56 when he defeated Akbar in Agra and Delhi and had taken over power from Delhi as the Hindu king 'Vikramaditya' after 'Rajyabhishake' or coronation in 'Purana Quila' in Delhi. However, during Mughal history, sometimes, subjects have the freedom to practice the religion of their choice, although the non-Muslim able-bodied males with income are obliged to pay Jizya, which signifies their status as Dhimmis.
Akbar, son of Emperor Mughal Humayun and heir of Sindhi Hameeda's Queen Banu Begum, has a broad vision of Indian and Islamic traditions. One of the greatest ideas of the great Emperor of Religion is the Din-i-Ilahi (The Faith of God), which is an eclectic mixture of Islam, Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, Jainism and Christianity. It proclaimed state religion until his death. However, these acts were violently opposed by Muslim clerics, especially Sufi Sheikh Alf Sani Ahmad Sirhindi. Akbar abolition of polls on non-Muslims, the acceptance of ideas from other religious philosophies, tolerance of public worship by all religions and his interest in other religions shows an adequate religious tolerance, which, in the minds of his orthodox Muslim enemies, is tantamount to apostasy.
Akbar's son, Jahangir, half Rajput, is also a moderate of religion, his mother is Hindu. The influence of the two Hindu queens (Maharani Maanbai and Maharani Jagat) preserved religious moderation as part of the extended center of state policy under his son, Emperor Shah Jahan, who is of 75% Rajput blood and less than 25% Moghul.
Religious orthodoxy will only play an important role during the reign of Shah Jahan's son and successor, Aurangzeb, a pious Sunni Muslim. Aurangzeb was relatively less tolerant of other religions than his predecessors, and his government saw an increasing number and importance of Islamic institutions and scholars. He led many military campaigns against the remaining non-Muslim forces of the Indian subcontinent - the Sikh states of the Punjab, the last independent Muslim Rajput and Maratha rebels - also opposed the Deccan Shia Muslim kingdom. He was also almost stamped, from his empire, the open proselytization of Hindus and Muslims by foreign Christian missionaries, who remained successfully active, in adjoining areas: today Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Goa.
Maratha Empire
The Hindu Maratha has long lived in the Desh region around Satara, in the western part of the Deccan plateau, where the plateau meets the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats. They have resisted attacks on the region by the Mughal Muslim rulers in northern India. Under their ambitious leader Shivaji, Maratha freed himself from the Muslim sultans of Bijapur to the southeast and, becoming much more aggressive, began to frequently invade the Mughal region, eventually sacking the rich Mughal port of Surat in 1664. Following substantial territorial gains, Shivaji was proclaimed 'Chhatrapati' (Emperor) in 1674; Maratha had spread and conquered much of Central India by Shivaji's death in 1680. Subsequently, under the able leadership of the Brahmin (Peshwas) prime ministers, the Maratha Empire reached its peak; Pune, where Peshwas, flowered as a center of learning and the Hindu tradition. The empire at its peak stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south, to Peshawar (modern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan) to the north, and Bengal and Andaman Islands to the east. In 1761, the Maratha army lost the Third Panipat Battle to Ahmad Shah Abdali of the Durrani Afghan Empire which halted the expansion of their empire into Afghanistan. Ten years after Panipat, the young Maratha Peshwa Madhavrao I's resurgence restored Maratha's authority over North India.
In 1761, the Maratha army lost the Third Panipat Battle to Ahmad Shah Abdali of the Durrani Afghan Empire which halted the expansion of their empire into Afghanistan. Ten years after Panipat, the Maratha Awakening of Peshwa Madhavrao I restored Maratha's power over North India. In an attempt to effectively manage the great empire, he gave semi-autonomy to the most powerful knights, who created the confederations of the Maratha countries. They are known as the Gaekwads of Baroda, Holkars of Indore and Malwa, Scindias Gwalior and Ujjain, Bhonsales of Nagpur and Puars of Dhar & amp; Dewas. In 1775, the East India Company intervened in the seizure of the Peshwa family in Pune, which became the First Anglo-Maratha War. The Marathas remain a superior force in India until their defeat in the Second Anglo-Maratha War which left the East India Company controlling most of India.
early colonialism
The Portuguese missionaries had reached Malabar Beach at the end of the 15th century, made contact with St Thomas Christians in Kerala and attempted to introduce the Latin Rite between them. Since the priests for the Christians of St Thomas were served by the Eastern Christian Churches, they followed Eastern Christian practices at that time. During this period, the foreign missionaries also made many new converts became Christians. This leads to the formation of Latin Catholics in Kerala.
The Inquisition Goa is the office of the Christian Inquisition in action in the Indian city of Goa and the rest of the Portuguese kingdom in Asia. St. Francis Xavier, in a letter of 1545 to John III, asked the Inquisition to be installed in Goa. It was installed eight years after the death of Francis Xavier in 1552. Established in 1560 and operating until 1774, this highly controversial institution is primarily aimed at Hindus and new converts.
In the 1760-1860 centuries, India was once again divided into several small or unstable kingdoms, gradually coming under the rule of the British Empire: the "smaller Mughal", the Mysore Empire, the State of Hyderabad, the Maratha Confederation, the Rajput Empire, the Palaiyakkarar state , northeastern states such as Manipur Kingdom, Himalayan state, etc. From 1799 to 1849 the only major kingdom in India was the Sikh Empire, although it had a syncretic character with a large number of Hindus and Muslims living in peace. It also became unstable after the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The whole continent fell under British rule (partially indirectly, through princely nations) after the Indian Uprising of 1857. Modern hinduism_ (after_c._1850_CE) "> Modern Hindu (after 1850 AD)
With the start of the British Raj, Indian colonization by the British, there was also the start of a Hindu revival in the 19th century, which greatly changed Hindu understanding in India and the west. Indology as an academic discipline studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by scholars such as Max MÃÆ'¼ller and John Woodroffe. They brought Vedic, Puranic and Tantric literature and philosophy to Europe and the United States. Western Orientalists sought the "essence" of Indian religions, distinguishing this in the Vedas, and in the meantime created the idea of ​​"Hinduism" as a unity of religious praxis and a popular image of the "Indian mystic". This idea of ​​the Vedic essence was taken over by the Hindu reform movement as Brahmo Samaj, supported temporarily by the Unitarian Church, along with the ideas of Universalism and Perennialism, the idea that all religions share the same mystical foundation. This "Hindu Modernism", with supporters such as Vivekananda, Aurobindo and Radhakrishnan, became central to the popular understanding of Hinduism.
Hindu Revivalism
During the 19th century, Hinduism developed a large number of new religious movements, partly inspired by the popular European Romance, nationalism, scientific racism, and esotericism (theosophy) at the time (while vice versa and contemporaries, India had a similar effect on European culture with Orientalism, "Hindoo-style" architecture, acceptance of Buddhism in the West and the like). According to Paul Hacker, "Neo-Hindu ethical values ​​are derived from Western and Christian philosophy, even though they are expressed in Hinduism."
These reform movements are summarized under Hindu revivalism and continue to this day.
- Sahajanand Swami formed the Swaminarayan Sampraday sect around 1800.
- Brahmo Samaj is a social and religious movement founded in Kolkata in 1828 by King Ram Mohan Roy. He was one of the first Indians to visit Europe and was influenced by western thought. He died in Bristol, England. The Brahmo Samaj movement then produced the Brahmo religion in 1850 founded by Debendranath Tagore - better known as the father of Rabindranath Tagore.
- Sri Ramakrishna and his pupil Swami Vivekananda led the reforms of Hinduism in the late nineteenth century. Their ideals and sayings have inspired many Indians as well as non-Indians, Hindus, as well as non-Hindus. Among the prominent figures who were heavily influenced by them were Rabindranath Tagore, Gandhi, Subhas Bose, Satyendranath Bose, Megh Nad Saha, and Sister Nivedita. Arya Samaj ("Noble Society") is a Hindu reform movement in India founded by Swami Dayananda in 1875. He is a sannyasin (denier) who believes in the perfect authority of the Vedas. Dayananda advocated the doctrine of karma and reincarnation, and emphasized the ideals of brahmacharya (sainthood) and sanyasa (rejection). Dayananda claimed to reject all non-Vedic beliefs altogether. Therefore, Arya Samaj firmly condemns idolatry, animal sacrifice, ancestor worship, pilgrimages, priests, temple-made offerings, caste systems, untouchables and marriage of children, on the grounds that none of these have Vedic sanctions. It aims to become a universal church based on Vedic authority. Dayananda declared that he wanted to 'make the whole world of Aryan', ie he wanted to develop Hindu missionaries based on the universality of the Vedas. For this purpose, Arya Samaj started the Shuddhi movement in the early 20th century to bring back Hindus to converts to Islam and Christianity, founded schools and mission organizations, and expanded its activities outside India. It now has branches all over the world and has a disproportionate number of believers among Indians in Suriname and the Netherlands, compared to India.
Reception in the West
An important development during the British colonial period was the influence of the Hindu tradition began to form on Western thought and new religious movements. The early winners of an Indian-inspired thought in the West were Arthur Schopenhauer who in the 1850s advocated an ethics based on the "Aria-Veda theme of spiritual self-conquest," as opposed to the foolish impulse of this earthly, earthly utopianism. The "Jewish" spirit. Helena Blavatsky moved to India in 1879, and her Theosophical Society, founded in New York in 1875, evolved into a strange mix of Western occultism and Hindu mysticism during the last years of her life.
Vivekananda's visit to the Parliament of the World Religions in Chicago in 1893 had a lasting effect. Vivekananda founded the Mission of Ramakrishna, a Hindu missionary organization that is still active today.
At the beginning of the 20th century, Western occultists were influenced by Hinduism including Maximiani Portaz - a supporter of "Aria Paganism" - who organized himself Savitri Devi and Jakob Wilhelm Hauer, founder of the German Faith Movement. In this period, and until the 1920s, that swastika became a symbol of luck everywhere in the West before its relationship with the Nazi Party became dominant in the 1930s.
The Hindu-inspired elements in Theosophy were also inherited by the swirling movements of Ariosophy and Anthroposophy and ultimately contributed to the renewed New Age boom of the 1960s to the 1980s, the term "New Age" > itself from Blavatsky's 1888 Secret Doctrine .
The influential 20th century Hindu is Ramana Maharshi, B.K.S. Iyengar, Paramahansa Yogananda, Prabhupada (ISKCON founder), Sri Chinmoy, Swami Rama, and others who translate, formulate and present the basic texts of Hinduism for contemporary audiences in new iterations, elevate Yoga and Vedanta profiles in the West and attract followers and attention. in India and abroad.
Contemporary Hinduism
In 2007, out of about 944 million Hindus, 98.5% lived in South Asia. Of the remaining 1.5% or 14 million, 6 million live in Southeast Asia (mostly Indonesia), 2 million in Europe, 1.8 million in North America, 1.2 million in South Africa.
South Asia
Modern Hinduism is a reflection of the continuity and progressive changes that took place in Hindu traditions and institutions during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Its main division is into Vaishnavism (strongly influenced by Bhakti), Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism (Advaita Vedanta).
Swami Vivekananda, Swami Dayananda, Rabindranath Tagore, Ramana Maharshi, Aurobindo, Shriram Sharma Acharya, Swami Shivananda, Swami Ram Tirth, Narayana Guru, Paramahansa Yogananda, Swami Chinmayanand, Hinduism, Hinduism, Shrii Shrii Anandamurti, Pandurang Shastri Athavale (Gerakan Swadhyay) and Lain-Lain.
The Hindutva movement that supports Hindu nationalism dates from the 1920s and remains a powerful political force in India. The main party of religious rights, Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), since its inception in 1980 has won several elections, and after a defeat in 2004 remains the main opposition force against the Congress party coalition government. The last national elections, held in early 2014, witnessed BJP's dramatic victory; he gained an absolute majority and formed a government, with Narendra Modi as Prime Minister.
Southeast Asia
Hindu awakening in Indonesia takes place in all parts of the country. In the early seventies, the Toraja people in Sulawesi were first identified under the umbrella of 'Hinduism', followed by the Karo Sumatra Batak in 1977 and the Ngaju Dayak in Borneo in 1980.
The growth of Hinduism is also driven by the famous Javanese prophecies about Sabdapalon and Jayabaya. Many newly converted Hindus have become members of the PNI Sukarno family, and now support Megawati Soekarnoputri. This return to 'Majapahit religion' (Hinduism) is a matter of nationalist pride.
New Hindu communities in Java tend to be concentrated around newly built temples (or temples) or around archaeological temple sites that are being reclaimed as Hindu places of worship. An important new Hindu temple in East Java is the Sumeru Agung Pura Mandaragiri, located on the slopes of Mt. Semeru, the highest mountain in Java. Mass conversion also occurred in the area around Pura Agung Blambangan, another new temple, built on a site with small archaeological remains associated with the Blambangan kingdom, the last Hindu government in Java, and Pura Loka Moksa Jayabaya (in the village of Menang near Kediri).
Neo-Hindu Movement in the West
In modern times, Smarta's views are very influential both in the understanding of Indian and Western Hinduism through Neo-Vedanta. Vivekananda was an organizer of the Smarta outlook, and Radhakrishnan himself was a Smarta-Brahman. According to iskcon.org,
Many Hindus may not strictly identify themselves as Smartas but, by adhering to Advaita Vedanta as the foundation for non-sectarianism, are indirect followers.
Influential in spreading Hinduism to a Western audience are Swami Vivekananda, AC Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada (Hare Krishna movement), Sri Aurobindo, Meher Baba, Osho, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (Transcendental Meditation), Jiddu Krishnamurti, Sathya Sai Baba, Meera Mother, among others.
Hindutva
In the 20th century, Hinduism also became famous as a political power and a source of national identity in India. With origins traced back to the formation of Hindu Mahasabha in the 1910s, the movement grew with the formulation and development of Hindutva ideology in the following decades; the founding of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) in 1925; and entries, and then succeeded, from the Jana Sangha and Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) RSS branches in electoral politics in post-independence India. Hindu Religiosity plays an important role in the nationalist movement.
See also
- Indian history
- The History of Yoga
- Shaivism History
- Indian Religion
- Religion in India
Note
Subnotes
References
Source
Web
Further reading
External links
- Authentic Hinduism Encyclopedia
- Hindu history in the MSN Encarta Encyclopedia (Archived 2009-10-31)
- Modern Hinduism
- Hinduism Timeline and its branches
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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