Reading education is the process by which individuals are taught to derive meaning from the text. School children who are incapable of reading competently by the end of the third grade can face barriers to success in education. The third score marks an important point in reading because students begin to encounter a wider range of texts in their fourth class.
Government-funded research on reading and reading in the United States began in the 1960s. In the 1970s and 1980s, researchers began publishing findings based on convergent evidence from several studies. However, these findings are slow to shift to typical classroom practices.
Video Reading education in the United States
Competence for advanced reading
A smart reading also depends on two important skills: the ability to understand the language in which the text is written, and the ability to recognize and process printed text. Each of these competencies also relies on lower level skills and cognitive abilities.
Children who are ready to understand spoken language and who are able to smoothly and easily recognize printed words usually have no trouble with reading comprehension. However, students must be proficient in both competencies to read well; difficulties in both domains undermined the entire reading process. At the end of the reading, children should be able to retell the story in their own words including the characters, settings, and events of the story. The researcher reads defines a skilled reader as one who can understand written text as well as they can understand the same parts if spoken.
There is some debate as to whether print recognition requires the ability to understand printed texts and translate them into spoken language, or more accurately translate printed text into meaningful symbolic models and relationships. The existence of a speed reading, and a high level of understanding will show that translation to the verbal form as an intermediary for understanding is not a prerequisite for an effective reading of the reading. This reading aspect is at the heart of many reading debates.
The purpose of reading is to have access to specific language literature. Traditional reading material has been selected from literary texts representing 'higher' cultural forms. According to many traditional approaches, the purpose of the learner is to study vocabulary, grammar and sentence structure, with attention to studying the syntax of this 'higher' culture. These approaches assume that authentic reading material is limited to a great author's work or experience.
Maps Reading education in the United States
Instructional method
Different teaching methods of reading have been advocated in English-speaking countries. In the United States, debate is often more political than objective. The Party is often divided into two camps that refuse to accept terminology or terms of reference respectively. Although both sides often include aspects of other methods. Both sides accused others of failing to learn to read and write. Phonetic proponents assert that, to read a large vocabulary of words correctly and smoothly requires detailed knowledge of the structure of the English language, especially spelling-speech patterns. All Language Advocates assert that students need not be able to issue words, but must look at unknown words and find out using context.
Research
In 2000, the National Reading Panel (NRP) issued a report based on published research meta-analysis on effective instructional reading. The report finds evidence-based support for several common approaches to teaching reading.
Phonemic consciousness
NRP called the phonemic awareness instruction (PA) "impressive":
- Overall, the findings indicate that teaching children to manipulate phonemes in words is very effective under various teaching conditions with learners at different levels and ages and that teaching phonemic awareness to children significantly improves their readings over instruction that has no concern for PA.
This report provides PA instruction based on teaching children to manipulate phonemes with letters as being very effective. The instruction of phonemic awareness also increases spelling on the class-level students, though that does not increase the spelling of the disabled reader.
Lexical readings
Lexical readings involve the acquisition of words or phrases regardless of the character or group of characters that compose them or by using the methodology of learning and full language teaching. Sometimes debated to compete with phonics methods, and that the whole language approach tends to ruin learning how to spell.
Historically, the two camps have been called the Whole Language and Phonetics, although the Whole Language teaching method has also been referred to as a "literary-based reading program" and "integrated language arts curriculum". Currently (2007), different perspectives are often referred to as "balanced reading instruction" (Entire Language) and "Scientific-based reading instruction" (Phonics).
All Words
All words, also known as "Sight Word" and "Look and Say", teach reading skills and strategies in authentic literary contexts. Accuracy of word recognition is considered less important than the accuracy of meaning; Therefore, there is an emphasis on understanding as the ultimate goal.
Students in this method memorize the appearance of words, or learn to recognize words by looking at the first and last letters of the vocabulary rigidly selected in progressive texts (such as Cats in Hats ). Often preliminary results show that children taught by this method have higher reading rates than children who are learning phonies, as they learn to automatically recognize few word choices. However, further tests indicate that the development of literacy becomes impeded when struck with longer and more complicated words later.
Sub-lexical readings
A sub-lexical reading involves reading teaching by connecting characters or groups of characters by voice or by using a Phonics teaching and learning methodology. Sometimes arguing to compete with the whole language method.
Phonics
Phonics refers to instructional methods for teaching children to read. This method teaches the sound to be associated with the letter and letter combination. "Phonics" is different from the linguistic terms "phonemes" and "phonetics", which refer to sounds and sound studies respectively.
Varieties of phonics include:
- The attached phenomenon is an instructional approach in which letter sound is taught opportunistically, when needs arise and in meaningful contexts, such as reading a story book. The attached phenomenon is often associated with an overall language approach to teaching reading.
- Fonik sintetik and fonik analitik are different but popular phonic teaching methods. The phonic and analytic analytic approach both generally involves carefully ordered, explicit instruction that teaches a large number of phonic patterns.
- Synthetic phonics emphasize one-to-one correspondence between phonemes and graphemes. In a synthetic fiction program, students say the sounds for the graphemes they see and orally combine them to produce the spoken word. In the context of phonics, the word "fusion" takes on a different meaning from its use in linguistics.
- In analytic phonics, students often learn phonograms, parts of rime words including vowels and what follows. Students are taught to generalize phonograms to several words. The -ail phonogram can be used to read fails, traces, emails, lamentations, screens , and other words.
The orthon phonography, originally developed to teach brain-damaged adults to read, is a form of phonics instruction that combines synthetic and analytic components. Orton describes 73 "phonograms", or a combination of letters, and 23 rules for spelling and pronunciation that Orton claims will allow the reader to pronounce and spell correctly except 123 of the 13,000 most common English words.
Pronunciation guides
Unlike phonics that teach English pronunciation rules, the new Phonetically Intuitive English technology directly shows the pronunciation of English words by adding diacritical markers to them. This solves the problem that the rules of pronunciation are often confusing (eg, "ea" has various pronunciations in "speaking", "steak", "bread", "Korean", "reality", "make" and "ocean").
The guide-pronunciation approach has proven to be very successful in reading education for languages ​​with very complex orthography such as Chinese. Pinyin and Zhuyin are Chinese phonetic transcription systems used in China and Taiwan, and printed on or next to Chinese characters in children's books, textbooks and newspapers as a pronunciation guide, and have allowed Chinese-speaking countries to reaching a high literacy rate. tariff for one of the most difficult languages ​​in the world.
Other learning methods
Guided Reading
During the guidance of reading teachers work with small groups of students. These are students with the same reading level. Students will read with the teacher in the book at their private reading level, not where the grade level is located. During this time the teachers will work with students to practice coding skills, fluency, vocabulary and understanding.
Original readout
Some methods of mixing phonics and whole words. The original reading, for example, differs from both because it emphasizes that the reading of instruction begins at a very early age, as the human brain progresses progressively most readily in the language of learning. The original readers learn to read as toddlers, starting at the same time they learn to speak, or soon afterwards.
Read Shop
Reading workshops are based on the premise that readers need time to read and discuss their reading. Readers need access to a wide range of reading materials of their choice. The classroom should have a wide variety of reading materials to accommodate this need. The reader needs to respond to the text and demonstrate the quality of literacy. No scripts to follow but framework to guide instructions. Students are exposed to various learning experiences. There is time for student collaboration and time to read involved.
During the reading workshops, the teacher modeled the whole group strategy lesson and then gave the student plenty of time to read and practice the strategy. This practice can occur independently, with partners, or in small groups with books or text selected by students. Master moves around the room and tells students about their reading. Teachers can meet small flexible groups to provide additional needs-based instruction. At the end of the workshop, the whole group gathered to share their lessons.
Improved Reading Example
Adults or colleagues read with students by modeling the reading fluently and then asking students to read the same piece aloud with encouragement and feedback by adults or colleagues. A student listens to a reader's text recording that read fluently on the student's independent level with a speed of about 80-100 words per minute. Students listen to the tape for the first time and then practice reading together with the tapes until the students can read fluently. Students read with colleagues. Each partner takes a turn reading to the other. A smoother reader can be paired with a less current reader to model fluent reading. A smoother reader can provide feedback and encouragement for a less-than-reader. Students with the same reading ability can also be paired, especially if the teacher has a fluent reading model and reading partners involves practice.
The following is a list of seven important strategies that all readers should be able to apply to the text to read and understand the content. The seven strategies are:
- 1. Creating a Connection;
- 2. Creating a Mental Image;
- 3. Making Conclusions/Conclusions Conclusions;
- 4. Asking Questions;
- 5. Determining What Matters;
- 6. Synthesis; and
- 7. Monitoring of Understanding and Meaning.
Reading comprehension
Understanding reading requires an understanding of the text, which allows the reader to gain knowledge, enjoy the story, and establish relationships with the larger world. Some skills support reading comprehension, including making predictions and conclusions, monitoring comprehension, using text structure, and using prior knowledge effectively. The two most important aspects of successful understanding are activating prior knowledge and metacognition, which are the two principles of learning identified in the National Research Council report.
Many studies have identified the importance of prior knowledge in reading comprehension. "Many researchers have pointed out that having some prior knowledge about the topic of a section allows a better understanding of text and better memory for it." "If we have prior knowledge of a topic in a text, we build meaning based on our experience, and we can adjust and change the plan as we walk." Some authors have defined two types of prior knowledge necessary for successful understanding. Helping the world's knowledge in understanding domain-specific fiction and knowledge facilitates nonfiction understanding. Students with this deficiency, request background information, thus making connections with and within the text.
Another principle of learning that greatly influences reading comprehension is the use of metacognition. The 'metacognitive' approach to teaching can help students learn to control their own learning by defining learning goals and monitoring their progress in achieving them. "Many studies show that a capable reader" monitors their understanding as they read engag- ing in strategic processing, such as re-reading previous texts, to resolve failure of understanding. "Students who can not track their own understanding get no information or pleasure from reading because they do not know how to gain meaning from the text.
Many strategies have been implemented. Many studies demonstrate the success of strategy instruction, especially for students with poor understanding. Some helpful strategies are summarization, questioning, prediction and conclusion, drawing, knowledge and use of text structure, rereading, self-organization, activation of prior knowledge, questioning authors, and using organizational charts. Strategies allow teachers to choose strategies or strategies that fit the text and needs of students.
For an example of a special intervention that incorporates four strategies for building understanding, it uses reciprocal teaching to summarize models, question, clarify, and predict. The authors point out that they chose this skill because of their dual function as "monitoring and understanding comprehension activities." The reciprocal teaching method, which involves the teacher modeling the designated activity and gradually changing the procedure to the student itself, uses Vygotsky's idea of ​​scaffolding. In this process, "the first children experience a certain set of cognitive activities in the presence of experts, and only gradually come to perform these functions on their own.In this study, students participating in reciprocal teaching interventions showed dramatic increases in scores understanding and defending it for at least eight weeks.
Non-traditional approach
Programs have been established to provide certified animal therapy, such as dogs, as non-judgmental "listeners" to build motivation and help children build skills and gain confidence in their reading skills.
The success rate of reading education in the US
The national literacy rate ranges from about 10 percent to 99 percent.
Print lighting
Print the exposure of how long a child or person spends visually aware of the written word (reading) - whether it is through newspapers, magazines, books, journals, scientific papers, or more. Research has shown that the amount of print material that a child has access to has profound cognitive consequences. In addition, the act of reading itself, for the most part regardless of what is being read, increases the difference in achievement among children.
Children exposed to a large number of prints are often more successful in reading and have larger vocabularies than children who see fewer prints. Average conversations among college graduates, spouses, or adult friends contain less rare words (continued) than the average preschool reading book. Other print sources have a higher number of rare words, from children's books, adult books, to popular magazines, newspapers, and scientific articles (listed in increasingly difficulty levels). Television, even adult news events, do not have the same rare word level as children's books do.
The problem is very oral repetitive language. To learn to read effectively a child needs to have a large vocabulary. Without this, as the boy reads, they stumble over words they do not know, and have trouble following the idea of ​​the sentence. This causes frustration and dislike of reading. When a child is faced with this difficulty he is less likely to read, thus further hampering the growth of their vocabulary.
Reading children do it more often and improve their vocabulary. A study of reading fifth graders outside school, found that a student in the 50th percentile reads a book about 5 minutes a day, while a student in the 20th percentile reads a book less than a minute a day. This same study found that the amount of time a child in the 10th percentile spent on reading in two days was the amount of time a child in the 90th percentile spent reading throughout the year.
Print exposure can also be a big factor in learning English as a second language. The book flood experiment is an example of this. The book flood program brings English books to the classroom. By focusing their English lessons on reading books rather than endless worksheets, teachers can increase the rate at which their students learn English.
Principles of alphabet and orthography of English
The early reader should understand the concept of the alphabetical principle to master basic reading skills. The writing system is said to be alphabetic if using symbols to represent individual language sounds. For comparison, logographic writing systems such as Japanese kanji and Chinese hanzi use symbols to represent a word. And both cultures also use syllable writing systems such as Japanese kana and Yi Chinese script, there are also many Chinese characters.
English is one of the few languages ​​that use the Latin Alphabet writing system. The orthographic depth of these languages ​​varies. Italian and Finnish languages ​​have the purest, or most superficial, orthography, and English orthography is the deepest or the most complex. In a shallow Spanish orthography; most words are spelled in the way they hear, that is, the spelling of words is almost always common. English orthography, on the other hand, is much more complex because it does not have a one-to-one correspondence between symbols and sounds. English has an individual voice that can be represented by more than one symbol or combination of symbols. For example, length | a | sounds can be represented by a-consonant-e as at meals, -as in hay, -ea as in steak, -as in them, -like sickness, and -e-like as in a vein. In addition, there are many words with irregular spelling and many homophones (words that sound the same but have different meanings and often different spellings as well). Pollack Pickeraz (1963) asserts that there are 45 phonemes in English, and that 26 letters of the English alphabet can represent them in 350 ways.
English spelling irregularities are largely artifacts of how language is developed. English is a Western Germanic language with substantial influences and additional vocabulary from Latin, Greek, and French, among others. Imported words usually follow their spelling pattern in their native language. Advanced English phonic instructions include studying words according to their origin, and how to determine the correct spelling of a word using their original language.
Clearly, the complexity of English orthography makes it harder for children to learn the rules of decoding and encoding, and it is more difficult for teachers to teach them. However, effective word recognition depends on the basic understanding that the letters represent the spoken language voice, that is, word recognition depends on the reader's understanding of the alphabetic principle
Spelling reform
Attempts to make English spelling behave phonetically have spawned numerous campaigns for spelling reform; nothing is generally accepted. Simplified spelling opponents show the impossibility of phonetic spelling for languages ​​with many different accents and dialects. However, some prominent scholars have completely denied all reasonable objections to spell reform, including this objection. See, for example, Simple American Spelling Dictionary. Thomas Lounsbury presented a crushing rebuttal against all reasonable objections to spelling reforms in 1909. A shorter rebuttal of all reasonable reservations to spell reform was made by Bob C Cleckler in 2005.
Linguists who document speech sounds use a variety of special symbols, in which the International Phonetic Alphabet is the most widely known. Linguistics makes the difference between a phone and a phoneme, and between phonology and phonetics. The study of words and their structure is morphology, and the smallest unit of meaning is morpheme. The study of the relationship between words present in the language at one time is synchronic etymology, part of descriptive linguistics, and the study of the origin of words and evolution is diachronic etymology, part of linguistic history
English Orthography gives first priority to morphology, then to etymology, and last to phonetics. Thus the spelling of a word depends on its structure, its relation to other words, and its language or origin. It is usually necessary to know the meaning of a word to spell correctly, and its meaning will be indicated by the similarity with words of the same meaning and family.
English uses the 26-letter Latin alphabet, but the number of graphs is expanded with multiple digraphs, trigraphs, and paragraphs, while the letter "q" is not used as a grafem by itself, only in "qu" digraphs.
Each grapheme can represent a number of phonemes depending on the etymology and location in the word. Likewise any phoneme can be represented by a limited number of graphemes. Some letters are not part of any grapheme, but serve as etymological markers. Graphemes do not cross the morpheme limit.
Morphs are spelled consistently, following the rules of inflection and word formation, and allow readers and writers to understand and produce words they have not previously met.
Early teaching alphabet
This method is designed to overcome the fact that English orthography has many-to-many relationships between graphemes and phonemes. This method becomes unused because children still have to learn the Latin alphabet and conventional English spelling to integrate with people outside of school. It also creates spelling problems that depend on dialect, which standardization of spelling has been created to be eliminated.
Increasing spelling with pronunciation information
Unlike spelling reforms, we can actually save the actual spelling of the actual word but add pronunciation information into it, e.g. use diacritics. Intuitive English Phonetics is a Chrome browser extension that automatically adds such pronunciation guides to English words on webpages, to English-speaking children to recognize the pronunciation of written words and therefore to map words to words mentally in his mind.
Practical apps
In practice, many children are exposed to "Phonic" and "Whole Language" methods, plus a reading program that combines both elements. For example, a very popular book, Teach Your Children to Read in 100 Easy Lessons , by Siegfried Engelman, et al. (ISBN 0-671-63198-5), teaches simple pronunciation and phonics, then completes it with progressive text and practice in directional reading. The end result of the mixed method is the phonetically excellent student, the spelling and the much better first spelling actor, who still has visible acquisitions, fluency and quick understanding. Using the eclectic method, students can choose their preferred learning style. This allows all students to make progress, but allows students to be motivated to use and recognize the best traits of each method.
A continuing speed reading where basic education ceases. Usually after several exercises, much of the students' reading speed can increase significantly. There are various fast reading techniques.
However, the speed of reading does not guarantee the understanding or retention of what is read.
Readability shows ease of understanding or understanding because of the writing style. Reading recovery is a method to help students learn to read.
History
In colonial times, reading the instructions was simple and straightforward: teach the children the code and then let them read. At that time, the reading material was not specifically written for children but was primarily composed of the Bible and several patriotic essays; the most influential early textbook was The New England Primer, published in the late 1680s. There is little consideration on how best to teach children to read or how to assess reading comprehension. It was not until the middle of the nineteenth century that this approach changed significantly. Educators, especially Horace Mann, began advocating changes in reading learning methods. He observes that children are bored and "like death" in school, and that instruction is needed to engage children's interest in reading material by teaching them to read the whole word. The McGuffey Readers (1836) are the most popular of these more attractive readers. In the mid-19th century, Rebecca Smith Pollard developed a sequential reading program of intensive synthetic phonics, complete with separate guidebooks and spelling and teacher reading.
From 1890 to at least 1910, A. L. Burt of New York and other publishing companies published a series of books aimed at young readers, using simple language to retell the longer classics. Mrs. JC Gorham produced three such works, Gulliver's journey with one syllable words (1896), Alice's Adventure in the Wonderland is retold in the words of one (1905), and Black Beauty retold in the words of a single syllable (1905). In England, Routledge published a similar series between 1900 and 1910.
The meaning-based curriculum does not dominate the reading instructions until the second quarter of the 20th century. Beginning in the 1930s and 1940s, the reading program became very focused on understanding and teaching children to read the whole word with sight. Phonics is not taught except sparingly and as a tool to be used as a last resort.
In the 1950s, Rudolf Flesch wrote a book titled "Why Johnny Can not Read", a passionate argument that supports teaching children to read using phonics. Aimed at American mothers and fathers, he also throws a tough criticism on publishers' decisions he claims to be motivated by profits, and he questions the honesty and intelligence of experts, schools and teachers. The book is on the best seller list for 30 weeks and spurring hue and crying in the general population. It also polarized the reading debate among educators, researchers, and parents.
This polarization continues to this day. In the 1970s an instructional philosophy called whole language (which did not emphasize the teaching of phonics out of context) was introduced, and it became the main method of reading instruction in the 1980s and 1990s. During this time, researchers (such as the National Institutes of Health) conducted a study showing that the initial reading of the acquisition depended on understanding the relationship between voice and letters.
The word vision method (Whole Word) was created by Pdt. Thomas H. Gallaudet, director of American Asylum in Hartford in the 1830s. It's designed for deaf education by pairing words, with pictures. In 1830, Gallaudet gave a description of his method to the Annals of Education of America which included teaching children to recognize a total of 50 words written on the card and in 1837, this method was adopted by the Boston Elementary School Committee. Horace Mann, Secretary of the Massachusetts Education Council, USA, loves this method and soon becomes the dominant method in the entire state. By 1844 the defect of the new method became very clear to Boston school teachers that they issued an attack on it's urgent return to phonics, systematically intensive. Once again Dr. Samuel Orton, a neuropathologist at Iowa in 1929 sought the cause of children's reading problems and concluded that their problem was caused by a new vision method in reading teaching. (His results are published in the February 1929 issue of the Journal of Educational Psychology, "Reading Methods of Reading Reading Vision as a Source of Reading Disability.")
See also
- Issues that are accessible
- Basal reader
- Core State Core Standard Initiative
- Dolch Word List
- Speech writing processors support reading (Gio-Key-Board) education
- Phonetically Intuitive English
- All languages ​​
References
Note
Bibliography
- National Right To Read Foundation - Many articles on comparisons between Phonics and techniques and the overall effect of language
External links
- The Learning Cognitive Foundation Read: The Framework - Southwest Education Development Laboratory
- "Reading Can Make You Smarter" by Anne Cunningham and Keith Stanovich; National Academy Principles of Primary School
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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