Antisemitism (also spelled anti-Semitism or anti-Semitism ) is hostility, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews. A person holding such a position is called antisemite . Antisemitism is generally regarded as a form of racism. It is also characterized as a political ideology that serves as an organizing principle and unites different groups that oppose liberalism.
Antisemitism can be manifested in many ways, ranging from hate expression or discrimination against individual Jews to organized pogroms by mass, state police, or even military attacks on the entire Jewish community. Although the term was not commonly used until the 19th century, it is now also applied to historic anti-Jewish incidents. Key examples of the persecution include the Rhineland massacre before the First Crusade in 1096, the Expulsion Decree of England in 1290, the massacre of Spanish Jews in 1391, the Spanish Inquisition persecution, the expulsion of Spain in 1492, the Cossack massacre in Ukraine from 1648-1657, various anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire between 1821 and 1906, 1894-1906 affair of Dreyfus in France, European-occupied European Holocaust during World War II, official Soviet anti-Jewish policy, and Arab and Muslim involvement in Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries.
The root Semite gives the wrong impression that antisemitism is directed against all Semitic people, for example. , including Arabs and Assyrians. The compound word antisemite was popularized in Germany in 1879 as a scientific-sounding term for Judenhass ("Jewish Hate"), and has been a common use ever since.
Video Antisemitism
Asal dan penggunaan dalam konteks xenophobia
Etimologi
The origin of the term "antisemit" is found in Moritz Steinschneider's response to Ernest Renan's view. As Alex Bein writes: "The compound of anti-Semitism seems to have been used first by Steinschneider, who challenged Renan for his 'anti-Semitic prejudice' [ie, an insult to" Semit "as a race]." Avner Falk also writes: 'The German word
The pseudoscientific theories of race, civilization, and "progress" have become very widespread in Europe in the second half of the nineteenth century, especially when the nationalist historian of Prinisol Heinrich von Treitschke did much to promote this form of racism. He created the phrase "the Jews are our misfortune" which would later be widely used by the Nazis. According to Avner Falk, Treitschke uses the term "Semit" almost synonymously with "Judaism", in contrast to the use of Renan to refer to various societies, based on linguistic criteria in general.
According to Jonathan M. Hess, the term was originally used by authors to "emphasize the radical difference between their own 'antisemitism' and early forms of animosity against Judaism and Judaism."
In 1879 German journalist Wilhelm Marr published a pamphlet, Der Sieg des Judenthums ÃÆ'¼ber das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet (Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the German Spirit Observed from a non-religious perspective) where he uses the word Semitismus > alternately with the word Judentum to show both "Jews" (Jews as collective) and "Jew" (qualities of being Jewish, or Jewish spirit).
The use of Semitismus was followed by a coining of "Antisemitismus" used to denote opposition to Jews as people and opposition to the Jewish spirit, which Marr interpreted as the German culture of infiltration. The next pamphlet, Der Weg zum Siege des Germanenthums ÃÆ'¼ber das Judenthum (The Path to Victory of the German Spirit over the Jewish Spirit , 1880), presents Marr's further development of ideas and can present the first use published from the German word Antisemitismus , "antisemitisme".
Pamphlets became very popular, and in the same year he founded the Antisemiten-League (League of Antisemites), apparently named to follow the "Anti-Kanzler-League" (Anti-Chancellor League). The League was the first German organization committed specifically to combat the alleged threat to Germany and the German culture inflicted by the Jews and their influence, and advocated forcibly removing them from the country.
As far as is certain, this word was first printed extensively in 1881, when Marr published Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte , and Wilhelm Scherer used the term Antisemiten in the January edition of Neue Freie Presse .
The Jewish Encyclopedia reports, "In February 1881, a correspondent of the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums spoke of 'Anti-Semitism' as a recently adopted title (" Allg Zeit. D. Jud. "1881, p.Ã, 138) On July 19, 1882, the editor said, 'This new anti-Semitism is almost three years old.'"
The term "related philosemitism" was coined around 1885.
Usage
From the beginning, the term anti-Semitism has a special racial connotation and specifically means prejudice against Jews. This term is confusing, because in modern usage 'Semit' denotes language groups, not race. In this sense, the term is false, because there are many Semitic speakers (eg Arabs, Ethiopians, and Assyrians) who are not objects of anti-Semitic prejudice, while there are many Jews who do not speak Hebrew, Semitic. Although 'antisemitism' has been used to describe prejudices against people who speak another Semitic language, the validity of such use has been questioned.
This term can be spelled with or without hyphens (antisemitism or anti-Semitism). Some scholars favor the unadulterated form because, "If you use a hyphenated form, you consider the words 'Semitism', 'Semitic', 'Semitic' as meaningful" while "in antisemitic language, 'Semit' really representing the Jews, it's just that. "For example, Emil Fackenheim supports unspoken spellings, to" [eliminate] the idea that there is a 'Semitism' entity that 'anti-Semitism' is against. " Others support an unadulterated term for the same reasons including Padraic O'Hare, professor of Religious and Theological Studies and Director of the Center for Jewish-Christian-Muslim Relations Studies at Merrimack College; Yehuda Bauer, professor of Holocaust studies at Avraham Harman Institute of Contemporary Jewry at Hebrew University of Jerusalem; and James Carroll, historians and novelists. According to Carroll, who first quotes O'Hare and Bauer on "the existence of something called 'Semitism'", "hyphenated words thus reflect the bipolarity which is at the core of the antisemitism problem".
The objections to the use of the term, such as the obsolete nature of the term Semit as a racial term, have been raised at least since the 1930s.
Definition
Although the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice against Jews, and, according to Olaf Blaschke, has become "a general term for negative stereotypes about Jews," some authorities have developed a more formal definition.
Holocaust expert and City University of New York professor Helen Fein defines it as "the continuous latent structure of a hostile belief in Jews as collectively manifested in the individual as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and image, and in acts - social or legal discrimination, political mobilization of Jews, and collective or state violence - that produces and/or is designed to distort, evict, or destroy Jews as Jews. "
Describing the definition of Fein, Dietz Bering of the University of Cologne writes that, for antisemit, "Jews are not only partial but really bad by nature, that is, their bad qualities can not be corrected because of this evil nature: (1) is seen not as an individual but as a collective. (2) The Jews are inherently alien to the surrounding society. (3) The Jews bring disaster to their 'host society' or worldwide, they do so secretly, therefore anti-All of them feel obliged to unveil a conspirator and a bad character. "
For Sonja Weinberg, distinct from anti-Judaism economics and religion, antisemitism in its modern form demonstrates conceptual innovation, a resort to 'science' to defend itself, new functional forms and organizational differences. It's anti-liberal, racist and nationalist. It promotes the myth that Jews conspire to 'yudaise' the world; it serves to consolidate social identity; he channeled dissatisfaction among the victims of the capitalist system; and it is used as a conservative cultural code to counter emancipation and liberalism.
Bernard Lewis defines antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution aimed at people who are in some ways different from others. According to Lewis, antisemitism is characterized by two distinct traits: Jews are judged according to standards different from those applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic crimes." Thus, "it is possible to hate and even persecute the Jews without having to be anti-Semitic" unless this hatred or ill-treatment displays one of two special features for antisemitism.
There have been numerous attempts by international agencies and governments to define antisemitism formally. The US Department of State stated that "while there is no universally accepted definition, there is a generally clear understanding of what is meant by the term." For the purposes of the 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism, the term is considered to mean "hatred of Jews - individually and as a group - that can be linked to Judaism and/or ethnicity."
In 2005, the European Monitoring Center on Racism and Xenophobia (now the Fundamental Rights Agency), then an agency from the European Union, developed a more detailed working definition, stating: "Antisemitism is a particular perception of Jews, which can be expressed as hatred of The rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed at Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, to Jewish community institutions and religious facilities. "He also added that" such manifestations can also target the state of Israel, understood as Jewish collectivity , "but that" criticism of Israel similar to that directed against any other country can not be considered antisemitism. " It provides a contemporary example of the ways in which antisemitism can manifest itself, including: promoting harm to Jews in the name of ideology or religion; promoting negative stereotypes of Jews; asking Jews to be collectively responsible for the actions of individual Jewish individuals or groups; denying the Holocaust or accusing Jews or Israelis exaggerating it; and accused the Jews of having double loyalty or greater allegiance to Israel than their own. It also mentions the ways in which Israel's attack could become antisemitism, and declares that denying the Jews their right to self-determination, for example by claiming that the existence of the state of Israel is a racist effort, could be a manifestation of antisemitism - by demanding Israel an undesirable or demanded behavior of any other democratic state, or asking Jews to be collectively accountable for the actions of the State of Israel. End of 2013, the definition is removed from the Fundamental Rights Agency website. A spokesman said that it was never considered official and that the agency did not intend to develop its own definition. However, despite the disappearance of the website of the Fundamental Rights Board, the definition has gained widespread international use. This definition has been adopted by the European Parliament Working Group on Antisemitism, adopted in 2010 by the US Department of State, in 2014 was adopted in the Hate Operations Crime Guidance of the British Police College and also adopted by Campaign Against Antisemitism, and in 2016 adopted by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance, making it the most widely adopted definition of antisemitism worldwide.
Evolution of use
In 1879, Wilhelm Marr founded the
Early Zionist pioneers Leon Pinsker, a professional physician, preferred the clinical-sounding terminology of Judeophobia against antisemitism, which he regarded as false. The word Judeophobia first appeared in his pamphlet "Auto-Emancipation", published anonymously in German in September 1882, where it was described as an irrational fear or hatred of Jews. According to Pinsker, this irrational fear is a hereditary predisposition.
Judeophobia is a form of demonopathy, with the difference that the Jewish ghost has been known by the whole human race, not only to certain races.... Judeophobia is a psychological disorder. As a psychic disorder it is hereditary, and as a disease transmitted for two thousand years it can not be cured.... Thus Judaism and hatred of Jews through history for centuries as an inseparable companion.... After analyzing Judeophobia as the hereditary form of the demonopathy, which is peculiar to the human race, and represents the Jewish hatred as based on the inherited deviations from the human mind, we must draw the important conclusion, that we must surrender against this hostile impulse, just as we surrender against any other predisposition inherited.
Following the pogrom Kristallnacht in 1938, German propaganda minister Goebbels announced: "The German people are anti-Semitic and have no desire to limit their rights or be provoked by the Jewish race parasites."
After the 1945 Allied victory over Nazi Germany, and especially after the Nazi massacre against the Jews became famous, the term "anti-Semitism" derived an annoying connotation. This marks a full circle shift in usage, from an era only a few decades earlier when "Jewish" was used as a derogatory term. Yehuda Bauer wrote in 1984: "There is no anti-Semitism in the world... No one says, 'I am anti-Semite.' You can not, after Hitler. The word is outdated. "
Maps Antisemitism
Manifestation
Antisemitism manifests itself in various ways. RenÃÆ'Â © KÃÆ'¶nig mentions social antisemitism, economic antisemitism, religious antisemitism, and political antisemitism as an example. KÃÆ'¶nig points out that these different forms suggest that "the origins of anti-Semitic prejudice are rooted in different historical periods." KÃÆ'¶nig asserted that differences in the chronology of different antisemitic prejudices and the distribution of irregular prejudices over different segments of different populations created "serious difficulties in the definition of different types of anti-Semitism." These difficulties can contribute to the existence of different taxonomies that have been developed to categorize forms of antisemitism. The identified form is essentially the same; especially the number of different forms and their definitions. Bernard Lazare identifies three forms of antisemitism: Christian antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and ethnological antisemitism. William Brustein mentions four categories: religion, race, economy and politics. Roman Catholic historian Edward Flannery distinguishes four types of antisemitism:
- political and economic antisemitism, provide for example Cicero and Charles Lindbergh;
- theological or religious antisemitism, sometimes known as anti-Judaism;
- nationalist antisemitism, quoting Voltaire and other Enlighten thinkers, who attacked the Jews for being perceived as having certain characteristics, such as greed and pride, and for observing customs such as kashrut and Shabbat;
- and racial antisemitism, with its extreme form which resulted in the Holocaust by the Nazis.
Louis Please separate "economic antisemitism" and incorporate "nationalist" and political antisemitism "into" ideological antisemitism. "Please also add the category of" social antisemitism ".
- religious (Jew as the killer of Christ),
- economy (Jew as banker, seducer, obsessed money),
- social (Jew as inferior social, "ambitious," vulgar, therefore excluded from personal contact),
- racist (Jew as "inferior" race),
- ideologically (the Jews are considered subversive or revolutionary),
- culture (Jews considered to undermine the morals and structures of civilization).
Gustavo Perednik argues that what he calls "Judeophobia" has a number of unique properties that distinguish him from other forms of racism, including determination, depth, obsessiveness, irrationality, endurance, ubiquity, and danger. He also wrote in his book The Judeophobia that the Jews were accused by nationalists as the creators of Communism, by Communists of ruling Capitalism, if they lived in non-Jewish countries, they were accused of double allegiance , if they live in a Jewish state, become racist.When they spend their money, they are reproached for striking, when they do not spend their money, become greedy They are called cosmopolitan without root or hardened chauvinists.If they are assimilated, they are accused of being a columnist fifth, if they do not do it, to shut down. "
Ruth Wisse argues that antisemitism is a political ideology that the authorities use to consolidate power by bringing together different groups. One example he gave was antisemitism within the United Nations, which historically served as a coalition-building technique between Soviet and Arab states during the Cold War but now serves as a coalition among nations opposed to the type of human rights ideology where the UN was created. Another example given is the formation of the Arab League.
Cultural Antisemitism
Louis Please define cultural antisemitism as "that species of anti Semitism that demands Jews by undermining certain cultures and seeks to substitute or replace substituting favored cultures with a uniform, coarse," "Jewish culture." Similarly, Eric Kandel characterizes the culture of antisemitism as based on the idea of ​​"Jews" as "religious or cultural traditions gained through learning, through different traditions and education." According to Kandel, this antisemitic form views Jews as having "unattractive psychological and social characteristics gained through acculturation. "Niewyk and Nicosia characterize cultural antisemitism as a focus on and condemn" the Jewish indifference of the communities in which they live. "An important feature of cultural antisemitism is that it considers the negative attributes of Judaism to be redeemed by education or religious conversion.
Religious antisemitism
Religious antisemitism, also known as anti-Judaism, is an antipathy against Jews because of the religious beliefs they feel. In theory, antisemitism and attacks on Jewish individuals will cease if Jews stop practicing Judaism or change their public faith, especially with conversion to the official religion or true religion. However, in some cases discrimination continues after conversion, as in the case of Christianized Marranos or Iberian Jews at the end of the 15th and 16th centuries who are suspected of secretly practicing Judaism or Jewish custom.
Although the origins of antisemitism are rooted in Judeo-Christian conflict, other forms of antisemitism have developed in modern times. Frederick Schweitzer asserted that, "most scholars disregard the Christian foundation in which modern antisemitism buildings lean and implore political antisemitism, cultural antisemitism, racism or racial antisemitism, economic antisemitism and the like." William Nichols drew the distinction between religious antisemitism and modern anti-Semitism based on race or ethnicity: "The line of separation is the possibility of effective conversion... a Jew ceases to be a Jew after baptism." From the perspective of racial antisemitism, however, "... the assimilated Jew is still a Jew, even after baptism.... From the Enlightenment to the next, it is no longer possible to draw a clear line of difference between religion and race from hostility towards the Jews. Once the Jews were liberated and secular thought emerged, leaving no old Christian hatred against the Jews, the new term antisemitism became almost inevitable, even before racist doctrine explicitly emerged.
Economic antisemitism
The underlying premise of economic antisemitism is that Jews engage in dangerous economic activities or that economic activity becomes dangerous when they are committed by Jews.
Connecting the Jews and money into the most destructive and lasting Antisemit's support. Antisemites claim that Jews control the world's finances, a theory promoted in the fraudulent Protocols of the Elders of Zion, and then repeated by Henry Ford and Dearborn Independent. In the modern era, the myths continue to spread in books such as the Secret Relationship between Blacks and Jews published by the Nation of Islam, and on the internet. Derek Penslar writes that there are two components to financial canards:
- a) Jews are savages who "in a temperament unable to do honest work"
- b) Jews are "leaders of the financial plot who seek world domination"
Abraham Foxman explains the six aspects of financial canards:
- All the rich Jews
- The Jew is stingy and greedy
- Strong Jews control the business world
- Judaism emphasizes profit and materialism
- It is okay for the Jews to deceive the Gentiles
- Jews use their power to get their "own kind"
Gerald Krefetz summarizes the myth as "[Jewish] controlling banks, money supply, economy, and business - from society, country, world". Krefetz gives, as an illustration, many slurs and proverbs (in several different languages) which indicate that Jews are stingy, or greedy, or miserly, or aggressive bargaining. During the nineteenth century, the Jews were portrayed as "proud, stupid, and tense", but after the Jewish Emancipation and the rise of the Jews into the middle or upper class in Europe it was described as "clever, cunning, and manipulative. master of [the world's finances] ".
LÃ © a on Poliakov asserted that economic antisemitism is not a different form of antisemitism, but only the theological manifestation of antisemitism (because, without the theological causes of economic antisemitism, there will be no economic antisemitism). Contrary to this view, Derek Penslar argues that in the modern era, the antisemitism of the economy "is different and almost constant" but the theological antisemitism "is often subdued".
An academic study by Francesco D'Acunto, Marcel Prokopczuk, and Michael Weber shows that people living in German territory containing the most brutal history of anti-Semitic persecution are more inclined to disbelieve finances in general. Therefore, they tend to invest less money in the stock market and make poor financial decisions. The study concludes "that the persecution of minorities reduces not only the long-term wealth of the persecuted, but also from the persecutors."
Racial antisemitism
Racial antisemitism is a prejudice against Jews as racial/ethnic groups, and not Jewish.
Racial antisemitism is the idea that Jews are a different race and inferior than their host country. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, it gained mainstream acceptance as part of the eugenics movement, categorized by non-Europeans as inferior. It is more specific to claim that Northern Europeans, or "Aryans", are superior. Racial antisemism sees Jews as part of the Semitic race and emphasizes their non-European origins and cultures. They see the Jews outside of redemption even if they convert to the majority religion.
Racial antisemitism replaces the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of the Jews as a group. In the context of the Industrial Revolution, following the Emancipation of Jews, Jews quickly experienced urbanization and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the declining role of religion in public life which softens religious antisemitism, the combination of growing nationalism, the rise of eugenics, and hatred of the Jewish socio-economic success leads to newer and more sinister racist antisemitism.
According to William Nichols, religious antisemitism can be distinguished from modern antisemitism based on race or ethnicity. "The line of separation is the possibility of an effective conversion... a Jew ceases to be a Jew after baptism." However, with racial antisemitism, "Now assimilated Jews are still Jews, even after baptism.... From the Enlightenment to the next, it is no longer possible to draw a clear line of distinction between religion and race from enmity to Jews. - the emancipated and secular-thinking Jews arose, leaving no old Christian hatred against the Jews, the new term antisemitism is almost inevitable, even before racist doctrine explicitly arises. "
At the beginning of the 19th century, a number of laws enabling the emancipation of Jews were imposed in Western European countries. The old laws that restrict them to the ghetto, as well as many laws that restrict their property rights, the right of worship and occupation, are repealed. Nevertheless, traditional discrimination and hostility toward Jews on the basis of religion persists and is supported by racial antisemitism, fueled by the work of racial theorists such as Joseph Arthur de Gobineau and especially his work. The Essay on the Human Inequality of the Races 1853 -5. A nationalist agenda based on ethnicity, known as ethnonationalism, usually excludes Jews from the national community as a foreign race. Allied with this is the theory of Social Darwinism, which emphasizes the alleged conflict between higher and lower human races. Such theories, usually assumed by northern Europeans, advocate the superiority of white Aryans to Semitic Jews.
Political antisemitism
William Brustein defines political antisemitism as hostile to Jews based on the belief that Jews seek national and/or world powers. "Yisrael Gutman characterizes anti-Semitism politics as tends to" put responsibility on Jews over political defeat and political economy "while attempting to" exploit opposition and resistance to Jewish influence as an element in the platform of political parties. "
According to Viktor KarÃÆ'¡dy, political antisemitism became widespread after the emancipation of Jewish law and attempted to reverse some of the consequences of that emancipation.
Conspiracy theory
Holocaust denial and Jewish conspiracy theories are also regarded as a form of antisemitism. Zoological conspiracy theories have been disseminated by Arab media and Arabic-language websites, accusing the "Zionist plot" behind the use of animals to attack civilians or espionage.
New antisemitism
Beginning in the 1990s, some scholars have developed a new antisemitism concept, coming simultaneously from left, right, and radical Islam, which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in the State of Israel, and they argue that anti-Zionism and criticism against Israel used to attack the Jews more broadly. In this view, proponents of the new concept believe that criticism of Israel and Zionism is often disproportionate and unique, and they associate this with antisemitism. Jewish scholar Gustavo Perednik argued in 2004 that anti-Zionism itself is a form of discrimination against Jews, because it ignores Jewish national aspirations as an illegitimate and racist attempt, and "proposes actions that will result in the death of millions of Jews." "It is asserted that new antisemitism is spreading traditional antisemit motives, including older motives such as blood slander.
Critics view this concept as disparaging of antisemitism, and as exploiting antisemitism to silence debate and divert attention from legitimate criticism of the State of Israel, and, by linking anti-Zionism with antisemitism, is abused to contaminate opposition. for Israeli actions and policies.
Indology
German indologists unilaterally identify the "layers" in the Mahabharata and the Bhagavad Gita with the aim of sparking European anti-Semitism through the Indo-Aryan migration theory. This identification entailed likening the Brahmin to the Jews, resulting in anti-Brahmanism.
History
Many authors see the roots of modern anti-Semitism in ancient pagan times and early Christianity. Jerome Chanes identifies six stages in the historical development of antisemitism:
- The pre-Christian Jews in ancient Greece and Rome were primarily ethnic in nature
- Christian Antisemitism in antiquity and the Middle Ages that is religious and has expanded into modern times
- Traditional Muslim antisemitism which - at least, in its classical form - nuances that Jews are a protected class
- The political, social and economic antisemitism of the Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment Europe laid the groundwork for racial antisemitism
- Racial antisemitism that emerged in the 19th century and culminated in Nazism in the 20th century
- Contemporary antisemitism that has been labeled by some as New Antisemitism
Chanes suggests that these six stages can be combined into three categories: "ancient anti-Semitism, mainly ethnic, Christian antisemitism, religious, and racial antisemitism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."
The ancient world
The first clear examples of anti-Jewish sentiment can be traced to the 3rd century BC to Alexandria, home to the largest Jewish diaspora community in the world at the time and where the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, was produced. Manetho, an Egyptian priest and historian of the time, wrote scathingly about the Jews. The themes are repeated in the works of Chaeremon, Lysimachus, Poseidonius, Apollonius Molon, and Apion and Tacitus. Agatharchides of Cnidus laughs at the practices of the Jews and "the absurdity of their Laws", makes a mock reference to how Ptolemy Lagus was able to invade Jerusalem in 320 BC because his inhabitants were observing the Shabbat. One of the earliest anti-Jewish decrees, disseminated by Antiochus IV Epiphanes around 170-167 BC, sparked the Maccabean uprising in Judea.
In view of Maneto's anti-Jewish writings, antisemitism probably originated in Egypt and was spread by the "Ancient Egyptian prejudices Greek". The ancient Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria described the attack on the Jews in Alexandria in 38 AD when thousands of Jews died. The violence in Alexandria may have been caused by the Jews described as misanthropes. Tcherikover argues that the reason for the Jewish hatred of the Hellenistic period was their separation in the Greek cities, poleis . The Bohak argued, however, that early hostility toward Jews could not be regarded as anti-Jewish or antisemit unless it arose from the attitude held against the Jews alone, and that many Greeks showed hostility towards any group they regarded as barbarians. Statements that show prejudice against Jews and their religion can be found in the work of many pagan Greek and Roman writers. Edward Flannery writes that the refusal of the Jews to accept the Greek religious and social standards that marked them. Hecataetus of Abdera, a Greek historian at the beginning of the 3rd century BC, wrote that Moses "in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them an inhuman and unfriendly way of life." Manetho, an Egyptian historian, wrote that the Jews were driven out by Egyptian lepers who had been taught by Moses "not to worship the gods." Edward Flannery describes anti-Semitism in ancient times as "culture, taking the form of national xenophobia played in political settings."
There are examples of Hellenistic rulers who tarnish the Temple and forbid Jewish religious practices, such as circumcision, Shabbat obedience, studying Jewish religious books, etc. Examples can also be found in the anti-Jewish unrest in Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE.
The Jewish Diaspora of the Elephantine Nile, founded by mercenaries, devastated the temple in 410 BC.
The relationship between the Jews and the occupying Roman Empire was sometimes antagonistic and resulted in some rebellion. According to Suetonius, Tiberius emperor was expelled from the Jewish Romans who went to live there. The 18th century English historian Edward Gibbon identifies a more tolerant period in Roman-Jewish relations beginning around AD 160. However, when Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire, the state's attitude toward the Jews gradually worsened.
James Carroll asserts: "Jews account for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire." With that ratio, if other factors such as pogroms and conversions do not intervene, there will be 200 million Jews in the world today, not something like 13 million.
Action during the Middle Ages
By the end of the 6th century AD, the newly-designated Visigoth kingdom in Hispania issued a series of anti-Jewish edicts forbidding Jews from marrying Christians, practicing circumcision, and observing Jewish holy days. Continuing throughout the 7th century, both the Visigoth king and the Church were active in creating social aggression and against Jews with "civil and ecclesiastical punishment", ranging from forced conversion, slavery, exile and death.
From the 9th century, the medieval Islamic world classified Jews and Christians as dhimmi, and allowed the Jews to practice their religion more freely than they could in medieval Christian Europe. Under Islamic rule, there was a Golden Age of Jewish culture in Spain that lasted until at least the 11th century. It ended when some Muslim pogroms against Jews took place in the Iberian Peninsula, including those that took place in CÃÆ'³rdoba in 1011 and in Granada in 1066. Several decrees ordered the destruction of the synagogue also imposed in Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen from the 11th century. In addition, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face deaths in parts of Yemen, Morocco, and Baghdad several times between the 12th and 18th centuries. Muwahidun, who had occupied the Maghribi and Andalusia Almoravids in 1147, was far more fundamental in his view than with their predecessors, and they are treating dhimmi aloud. Faced with the choice of death or repentance, many Jews and Christians emigrated. Some, like the Maimonides, fled east to a more tolerant Muslim land, while some went north to settle in the growing Christian kingdom.
During the Middle Ages in Europe there was persecution of Jews in many places, with blood contamination, expulsion, forced conversion and massacres. The main justification for prejudice against Jews in Europe is religion.
The persecution reached its first peak during the Crusades. In the First Crusade (1096), hundreds or even thousands of Jews were killed when the crusaders arrived. This was the first major outbreak of anti-Jewish violence in Christian Europe outside of Spain and was cited by Zionists in the 19th century as an indication of the necessity of an Israeli state.
In the Second Crusade (1147) the Jews in Germany were subjected to several massacres. The Jews were also subjected to attacks by the Shepherd Cross' 1251 and 1320, as well as the Knights of Rintfleisch in 1298. The Crusades were followed by expulsion, including, in 1290, expelling all British Jews; in 1394, the expulsion of 100,000 Jews in France; and in 1421, the expulsion of thousands of people from Austria. Many expelled Jews fled to Poland. In the Middle Ages and Renaissance Europe, the main contributor to the deepening of anti-emotional sentiments and legal action among the Christian population was the popular preaching of the enthusiastic order of reform, the Franciscans (especially Bernardino of Feltre) and the Dominicans (especially Vincent Ferrer), who combed Europe and promote antisemitism through their often fiery emotional appeal.
When the Black Death plague destroyed Europe in the mid-14th century, causing the death of most of the population, the Jews were used as scapegoats. Rumors spread that they caused the disease to deliberately poison the well. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed in various persecutions. Although Pope Clement VI tried to protect them by issuing two popes in 1348, the first on July 6 and an additional few months later, 900 Jews were burned alive in Strasbourg, where the plague had not affected the city.
the 17th century
During the mid-17th century, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was destroyed by several conflicts, where the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3 million people), and Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these conflicts was the Khmelnytsky Rebellion, when supporters of Bohdan Khmelnytsky massacred tens of thousands of Jews in the eastern and southern regions he controlled (now Ukraine). The exact number of dead people may never be known, but the decline in Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, disease-related deaths and captivity in the Ottoman Empire, called jasyr .
European immigrants to the United States brought antisemitism to this country in the early 17th century. Peter Stuyvesant, Dutch governor of New Amsterdam, implements plans to prevent Jews from settling in the city. During the Colonial Era, the American government limited the political and economic rights of the Jews. It was only after the American Revolutionary War that the Jews had the legal right, including the right to vote. Yet even at its height, the restrictions on Jews in the United States were never as tight as they were in Europe.
In Zaydi Yaman's imams, Jews were also chosen for discrimination in the 17th century, culminating in the general eviction of all Jews from places in Yemen to the dry plains of Tihamah coast and known as the Mawza Disposal.
Enlightenment
In 1744, Frederick II of Prussia limited the number of Jews allowed to stay in Breslau only ten so-called "protected" Jewish families and encouraged similar practices in other Prussian cities. In 1750 he issued the Revidiertes General Privilegium und Reglement vor die Judenschaft: "Protected Jews" have an alternative to "abstain from marriage or leave Berlin" (quoting Simon Dubnow). In the same year, Archduchess of Austria Maria Theresa ordered the Jews out of Bohemia but immediately reversed her position, on condition that the Jews pay to be reimbursed every ten years. This extortion is known as malke-geld (queen money). In 1752 he introduced a law restricting every Jewish family to one son. In 1782, Joseph II abolished most of these persecution practices in his book Tolerzentent, on the condition that Yiddish and Hebrews were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled. Moses Mendelssohn writes that "Such tolerance... is even more dangerous in tolerance than open persecution."
Russian Empire
Thousands of Jews were massacred by Cossack Haidamaks in 1768 Uman massacre in the Kingdom of Poland. In 1772, Russian consort Catherine II forced the Jews into the Pale of Settlement & amp; ndashl located mainly in Polish, Ukrainian, and Belarusian today - and to stay in their homes and forbid them return to the cities they occupied before the Polish partitions. From 1804, Jews were banned from their villages, and began to flow into the cities. A decision by Emperor Nicholas I of Russia in 1827 dragged Jews under the age of 18 to Cantonese schools for a 25-year military service to promote baptism. The policy against the Jews was liberalized under the Alexander II Alexander ( r .1855-1881 ). However, his assassination in 1881 became the reason for further suppression such as the Law of May 1882. Konstantin Pobedonostsev, dubbed "black tsar" and teacher to czarevitch, later crowned as Czar Nicholas II, stated that "One-third of Jews must die, a third must emigrate , and a third converted to Christianity ".
Voltaire
According to Arnold Ages, Voltaire's "Lettres philosophiques, Dictionnaire philosophique, and Candide, to name but some of the better known works, are filled with commentary on Jews and Judaism and the vast majority are negative". Paul H. Meyer added: "There is no question but Voltaire, especially in his later years, suffered strong hatred against the Jews and was equally convinced that his enmity... did have a considerable impact on public opinion in France." Thirty of the 118 articles in Voltaire's Dictionary Philosophique focus the Jews and describe them consistently in a negative way.
Islamic Antisemitism in the 19th century
Historian Martin Gilbert writes that in the 19th century the position of the Jews was worsening in Muslim countries. Benny Morris writes that a symbol of Jewish degradation is a phenomenon of stone throwing on Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th century traveler: "I have seen a six-year-old boy, with only three and four-year-old children's troops, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and a small urchin , with the greatest coolness, swooped down to the man and completely spit his gaberdine. For all these Jews had to bow, it would have been more than his life worth to offer to attack a Mahommedan. "
In the mid-19th century, JJ Benjamin wrote about the life of Persian Jews, describing the conditions and beliefs that went back to the 16th century: "... they are obliged to live in separate parts of the city... Under the pretext that they are not clean, they are treated very hard and should they enter the road, inhabited by Mussulman, they are pelted by sons and masses with stones and earth.... "
At least in Jerusalem, the conditions for some Jews improved. Moses Montefiore, on his seventh visit in 1875, notes that fine new buildings have emerged and; 'Surely we are approaching time to witness God's holy promise to Zion.' Arab Muslims and Christians participated in Purim and Easter; The Arabs call Sephardic Jews, Arab children '; Ulama and Rabi offer prayers together for rain during drought.
At the time of Dreyfus' trial in France, 'Muslim comments are usually preferred by Jews who are persecuted against their Christian persecutors'.
Secular or racial antisemitism
In 1850 the German composer Richard Wagner - who has been called the "inventor of modern antisemitism" - published Das Judenthum in der Music (roughly "Jewishness in Music") under the pseudonym in Neue Zeitschrift fÃÆ'¼r Music . The essay began as an attack against Jewish composers, notably Wagner's contemporaries, and rivals, Felix Mendelssohn and Giacomo Meyerbeer, but expanded to accuse the Jews of being a dangerous and foreign element in German culture, which corrupts morals and, in fact, parasites unable to create real "German" art. The essence is manipulation and control by the Jews in the money economy:
According to the current constitution in the world, the Jews are actually more than emancipation: he reigns, and will rule, as long as Money remains a force in which all our deeds and our affairs lose their power.
Although initially published anonymously, when the essay was republished 19 years later, in 1869, the corrupt Jewish concept had become so widely held that the name Wagner attached to it.
Antisemitism can also be found in many Grimms tales by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, published from 1812 to 1857. It is primarily characterized by Jews as criminals from a story, as in "The Good Bargain" (" Der gute Handel ") and" The Jew Among Thorns "(" Der Jude im Dorn ").
The mid-19th century continued to experience official harassment of Jews, particularly in Eastern Europe under the influence of the Czar. For example, in 1846, 80 Jews approached the governor in Warsaw to defend the right to wear their traditional dress, but were soon rejected with their hair and beards forcibly cut, at their own expense.
In America, even influential figures such as Walt Whitman tolerate bigotry against Jews. During his tenure as editor of the Brooklyn Eagle (1846-1848), the paper published a sketch of history that cast Jews in a bad light.
The Dreyfus Affair was a famous antisemitic event of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish artillery captain in the French Army, was accused in 1894 of passing a secret to Germany. As a result of these allegations, Dreyfus was sentenced and sentenced to life imprisonment on Satan Island. The real spy, Marie Charles Esterhazy, was released. The incident caused a great uproar among the French, with the parties who voted publicly on the issue of whether Dreyfus was actually guilty or not. ÃÆ' â € ° Zola miles accused the army of damaging the French justice system. However, the general consensus states that Dreyfus is guilty: 80% of the press in France cursed him. This attitude among the majority of French citizens reveals the antisemitism that underlies the time period.
Adolf Stoecker (1835-1909), Lutheran court priest for Kaiser Wilhelm I, founded in 1878 as an anti-political anti-political party called the Christian Social Party. The party always remained small, and its support was reduced after Stoecker's death, with most of its members finally joining larger conservative groups such as the German National People's Party.
Some scholars see Karl Marx's essay On The Jewish Question as antisemitic, and argue that he often uses the antisemit nickname in his published and private writings. These scholars argue that Marx equated Judaism with capitalism in his essay, helping to spread the idea. Some argue that the essay affects the National Socialist, as well as the Soviet and Arab antisemism. Marx himself had a Jewish ancestor, and Albert Lindemann and Hyam Maccoby claimed he was ashamed of it. Others argue that Marx consistently supported the struggle of the Prussian Jewish community to achieve equality of political rights. These scholars argue that "Concerning the Jewish Question" is a critique of Bruno Bauer's argument that the Jews must convert to Christianity before being liberated, and more generally a critique of the discourse of liberal rights and capitalism. Iain Hamphsher-Monk wrote that "This work [On The Jewish Question] has been cited as evidence for Marx who is considered anti-Semitism, but only the most superficial readings can defend such an interpretation." David McLellan and Francis Wheen argue that the reader should interpret the Jewish Question in the deeper context of Marx's debate with Bruno Bauer, author of The Jewish Question, of Jewish emancipation in Germany.. Wheen says that "The critics, who see this as the introduction of 'Mein Kampf', ignore one important point: apart from the clumsy phrases and raw stereotypes, the essay is actually written as a defense of the Jews, replied to Bruno Bauer, who argued that the Jews must not be granted civil rights and civil liberties entirely unless they are baptized as Christians ". According to McLellan, Marx uses the word Judentum everyday language, as the meaning of commerce, which argues that the Germans should be freed from the capitalist mode of production not Judaism or Jews in particular. McLellan concluded that readers should interpret the second half of the essay as "an additional game at Bauer's cost".
20th century
Between 1900 and 1924, about 1.75 million Jews migrated to America, mostly from Eastern Europe. Before 1900 American Jews always numbered less than 1% of the total American population, but by 1930 the Jews formed about 3.5%. This increase, combined with the upward social mobility of some Jews, contributed to the rise of antisemitism. In the first half of the 20th century, in the United States, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tight quotas on enrollment and Jewish teaching positions in colleges and universities. The termination of Leo Frank by a group of prominent citizens in Marietta, Georgia in 1915 was in the spotlight against antisemitism in the United States. This case is also used to build support for Ku Klux Klan renewal that has been inactive since 1870.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Beil Court in Russia represented the incidence of blood pollution in Europe. Christians use the allegations of the Jews killing Christians as justification for the killing of Jews.
Antisemitism in America reached its peak during the interwar period. Pioneer automaker Henry Ford spread antisemit ideas in his newspaper The Dearborn Independent (published by Ford from 1919 to 1927). Father Coughlin's radio speeches in the late 1930s invaded New Deal Franklin D. Roosevelt and promoted the idea of ​​a Jewish financial conspiracy. Some prominent politicians share such a view: Louis T. McFadden, Chairman of the US Banking and Currency Council Committee, blames the Jews for Roosevelt's decision to leave the gold standard, and claims that "in the United States today, Gentiles have slip of paper while the Jews have legitimate money ".
In the early 1940s aviator Charles Lindbergh and many prominent Americans led the First Committee of America in opposing any involvement in the war against Fascism. During a July 1936 visit to Nazi Germany, a few weeks before the 1936 Summer Olympics, Lindbergh wrote a letter saying that there is "a smarter leadership in Germany than is generally recognized". The German American Bund held a parade in New York City in the late 1930s, where members wore Nazi uniforms and raised banners featuring swastika alongside American flags.
Sometimes racial unrest, like in Detroit in 1943, targeted Jewish businesses to loot and burn.
In Germany, Nazism led Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party, which ruled on 30 January 1933 shortly afterwards instituted a repressive law that rejected the basic civil rights of the Jews. In September 1935, the Nuremberg Law prohibited sexual intercourse and marriage between "Aryans" and Jews as Rassenschande ("shameful race") and exposed all German Jews, even quarter and half Jews, from their nationality. , (Their official title becomes "the subject of the state"). It instituted pogroms on the night of 9-10 November 1938, nicknamed Kristallnacht , in which Jews were killed, their property destroyed and their synagogues burned. Law, agitation, and antisemitic propaganda expanded into the German-occupied Europe in the midst of conquest, often building a tradition of local antisemitism. In the east the Third Reich forced the Jews into the ghettos in Warsaw, in Kraków, in Lvov, in Lublin and in Radom. After the beginning of the war between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in 1941, a mass murder campaign, perpetrated by Einsatzgruppen, peaked from 1942 to 1945 in a systematic genocide: the Holocaust. Eleven million Jews were targeted to be annihilated by the Nazis, and about six million people were eventually killed.
Antisemitism is usually used as an instrument to resolve personal conflicts in the Soviet Union, beginning with the conflict between Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky and continuing through various conspiracy theories propagated by official propaganda. Antisemitism in the Soviet Union reached new heights after 1948 during a campaign against the "cosmopolitan without roots" (euphemism for "Jews") in which many Yiddish poets, writers, painters and sculptors were killed or captured. This culminated in the so-called Plot of Doctors (1952-1953). Similar antisemitic propaganda in Poland resulted in the escape of surviving Jews from Poland.
After the war, Kielce's pogroms and "1968 March events" in communist Poland represented further antisemitism incidents in Europe. Anti-Jewish violence in postwar Poland has a common theme of blood slander rumors.
European antisemitism of the 21st century
Physical attacks against Jews in these countries include beatings, stabbings and other violence, which increase prominently, sometimes resulting in serious injury and death. The 2015 report by the US State Department on religious freedom states that "European anti-Israeli sentiment crosses boundaries into anti-Semitism."
The rise in antisemitic attacks is linked to Muslim anti-Semitism and the rise of right-wing political parties as a result of the 2008 economic crisis. The rise of support for far right ideas in western and eastern Europe has resulted in an increase in antisemitism, mostly attacks on Jewish warnings , synagogues and graves, but also a number of physical attacks against Jews.
In Eastern Europe the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the instability of new countries has led to the rise of the nationalist movement and accusations against Jews over the economic crisis, taking over the local economy and bribing governments along with traditional and religious motives for antisemitism such as blood pollution. Most anti-Semitic incidents are against Jewish graves and buildings (community centers and synagogues). There were, however, several violent attacks against Jews in Moscow in 2006 when a neo-Nazi stabbed nine people at the Bolshaya Bronnaya Synagogue, a failed bomb attack at the same synagogue in 1999, threats against Jewish pilgrims in Uman, Ukraine and the attack. opposed the menorah by an extremist Christian organization in Moldova in 2009.
Europe is concerned about antisemitism because, historically, society with a large degree of anti-Semitism is self-destructive. Furthermore, Jews in Europe generally align themselves with the European democratic elite, a class whose future is uncertain according to the Economist Intelligence Unit.
21st century Arabic antisemitism
Robert Bernstein, founder of Human Rights Watch, says that antisemitism is "deeply embedded and institutionalized" in "modern Arab countries".
In a 2011 survey by the Pew Research Center, all Muslim Middle East countries held some positive opinions about Jews. In the questionnaire, only 2% of Egyptians, 3% of Lebanese Muslims, and 2% of Jordanians reported having a positive outlook on Jews. Muslim-majority countries outside the Middle East also have few people who have a positive view of Jews, with 4% of Turks and 9% of Indonesians seeing Jews well.
According to a 2011 exhibition at the US Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, USA, several dialogues from the Middle East media and commentators on Jews have a striking resemblance to Nazi propaganda. According to Josef Joffe of Newsweek , "anti-Semitism - the real things, not just the idiosyncrasies of certain Israeli policies - are largely the life of the Arabs today as hijab or hookah. this is no longer tolerated in a polite society in the West, in the Arab world, the hatred of Jews remains a cultural endemic. "
Muslim clerics in the Middle East often refer to Jews as the offspring of apes and pigs, which is a conventional nickname for Jews and Christians.
According to professor Robert Wistrich, director of the Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA), calls for the destruction of Israel by Iran or by Hamas, Hezbollah, Islamic Jihad, or Muslim Brotherhood, represents the contemporary mode of genocide antisemitism.
Cause
Antisemitism has been described in terms of racism, xenophobia, projected mistakes, aggressive aggression, and the search for scapegoats. Some explanations give a partial error to the Jewish perception of being unfriendly. Such perceptions may have arisen by many Jews who are strictly kept in their own communities, with their own practices and laws.
It has also been argued that part of antisemitism arises from the perception of the Jews as greedy (as is often used in Jewish stereotypes), and this perception may have developed in Europe during the Middle Ages where most of the money loans were operated by Jews.. The factors that contribute to this situation include that Jews are limited from other professions, while the Christian Church declares to their followers that money lending is an immoral "usury".
Current situation
The March 2008 report by the US State Department found that there was an increase in antisemitism around the world, and that new and old anti-Semitic expressions remained. The 2012 report by the US Democracy, Human Rights and Labor Bureau also noted a continuous global rise in antisemitism, and found that Holocaust denials and opposition to Israeli policy at the time were used to promote or justify striking antisemitism.
Africa
Algeria
Nearly all Jews in Algeria left independence in 1962. Algeria 1
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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