The history of Christianity involves Christianity, Christianity, and the Church with various denominations, from the 1st century to the present.
Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodox Christianity spread throughout Europe in the Middle Ages. Christianity flourished throughout the world and became the world's largest religion because of European colonialism. Today there are more than two billion Christians worldwide.
Video History of Christianity
Awal Kekristenan (c. 31/33-324)
During the early history, Christianity grew from the Jews of the 1st century after becoming a religion that existed throughout the Greco-Roman world and beyond.
Early Christianity can be divided into two distinct phases: the apostolic period, when the first apostles lived and led the Church, and the post-apostolic period, when the early episcopal structures developed, and periodic persecution intensified. The Roman persecution of Christians ended in 324 when Constantine the Great decided on religious tolerance. He then called the First Council of Nicaea in 325 AD, the beginning of the first Seven Ecumenical Council period.
Apostolic Church
The Apostolic Church is a community led by the apostles, and to some extent, the relatives of Jesus. In his "Great Commission", the resurrected Jesus commanded that his teachings be disseminated throughout the world. While the historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles is disputed by the critics, the Acts of the Apostles are the main source of information for this period. The Acts of the Apostles gives the Church history of this commission in 1: 3-11 for the propagation of religion among the nations and the eastern Mediterranean by Paul and others.
The first Christians were basically Jewish or Jewish Jews. In other words, Jesus preached to the Jews and called from them his first disciples, see for instance Matthew 10. However, the Great Commission is specifically directed to "all nations," and early difficulties arise concerning the problem of Gentiles (non- Jewish) converts whether they should "become Jews" (usually referring to circumcision and obedience to food laws), as part of being a Christian. Circumcision is particularly considered repugnant by Greeks and Hellenists, while circumcision supporters are labeled Jews, see the Jewish background with circumcision controversy for details. Peter's actions, at the conversion of Cornelius the Officer, seem to indicate that circumcision and food laws do not apply to Gentiles, and this is approved in Jerusalem's Apostolic Council. The related issues are still being debated at this time.
The doctrine of the apostles brought the Early Church in conflict with some Jewish religious authorities. This eventually led to their expulsion from the synagogue, according to one of the Jamnia Council's theories. Acts records the martyrdom of Christian leaders, Stephen and James of Zebedee. Thus, Christianity acquired a different identity from Rabbinic Judaism, but this distinction was not recognized at once by the Roman Empire, see the Separation of Early Christianity and Judaism for details. The name "Christian" (Greek ????????? ) was first applied to the disciples in Antioch, as recorded in Acts 11 : 26. Some argue that the term "Christian" was first coined as a derogatory term, which means "little Christ", and is intended as a mockery, a derision term for those who follow the teachings of Jesus.
Maps History of Christianity
Early Christian beliefs and beliefs
Sources for apostolic community beliefs include the Gospel and the New Testament letters. The earliest records of beliefs contained in these texts, such as early creeds and hymns, as well as stories of the Passion, empty tomb, and resurrection appearances; some of which are dated 30s or 40s, originating from the Jerusalem Church. According to a tradition recorded by Eusebius and Epiphanius, the Jerusalem church fled to Pella at the outbreak of the First Jewish-Roman War (66-73 AD).
Post-Apostolic Church
The post-apostolic period concerns the time after the death of the apostles (about 100 AD) until the persecution ends with the legalization of Christian worship under Emperor Constantine the Great and Lisinius.
Action
According to the New Testament, Christians were subjected to persecution from the beginning. This even involves death for Christians like Stephen (Acts 7:59) and James, son of Zebedee (12: 2). The large-scale persecution that took place at the hands of the rulers of the Roman Empire, beginning with the year 64, when, as reported by the Roman historian Tacitus, Emperor Nero blamed them on the Great Fire of Rome that year.
According to Church tradition, under Nero's persecution that Peter and Paul were each martyred in Rome. Similarly, some New Testament writings mention the persecution and stress resilience through them.
The early Christians suffered sporadic persecution as a result of a local pagan population suppressing the imperial authority to take action against Christians in their midst, which is considered to be disastrous because of their refusal to honor the gods. The last and most severe persecution organized by the imperial authority was the Persecution of Diocletian, 303-311.
The reason for the spread of Christianity
Despite this sometimes intense persecution, Christianity continued to spread throughout the Mediterranean Basin. There is no agreement on how Christianity managed to spread successfully before the Milan Decree and the establishment of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire. In The Rise of Christianity Rodney Stark argues that Christianity prevailed over paganism primarily because it increased the lives of its adherents in various ways.
Another factor is the way in which Christianity combines the promise of a general resurrection of the dead with traditional Greek belief that true immortality depends on the survival of the body, with Christianity adding a practical explanation of how this will actually happen in the end. in this world. For Mosheim, the rapid development of Christianity is explained by two factors: the New Testament and Apology translations compiled to defend Christianity.
Edward Gibbon in his book The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire discusses this topic in great detail in his famous Fifteen Chapters, summarizing the historical reasons for the early success of Christianity as follows: (1) Inflexible, and, if we can use that phrase, the intolerant spirit of the Christian, originating, that is true, of Judaism, but purified from a narrow and non-social spirit which, instead of inviting, has prevented Gentiles from embracing the law of Moses. (2) The doctrine of future life , enhanced by any additional circumstances that can give weight and efficacy to the important truths. (3) The magical power that comes from the primitive church (4) The pure and the harsh morals of the Christian. (5) Unity and republican discipline Christians, who gradually formed an independent and increasing state in the heart of the Roman empire. "
Structure and episcopacy
In post-apostolic churches, bishops emerged as overseers of urban Christian populations, and the clerical hierarchy gradually adopted the episcopal forms (overseers, in-spectators, and the origins of the bishop) and elders (elder, and the origin of the priest), and then deacon (servant). But this appears slowly and at different times for different locations. Clement, the bishop of Rome of the 1st century, refers to the leaders of the Corinthian church in his letter to the Corinthians as bishops and presbyters in turn. New Testament authors also use the terms supervisors and elders in turn and as synonyms.
The post-apostolic post-apostolic bishops include Polycarp Smyrna, Roman Clement, and Ignatius of Antioch. These people reportedly knew and studied under the apostles personally and therefore called the Apostolic Father. Every Christian community also has a presbyter, as is the case with the Jewish community, also ordained and aided by the bishop. As Christianity spreads, especially in rural areas, presbyter holds more responsibilities and takes on the characteristic form of a pastor. Finally, deacons also perform certain tasks, such as caring for the poor and sick. In the second century, the episcopal structure became more visible, and in that century this structure was supported by the teaching of apostolic succession, in which a bishop became the spiritual successor of the previous bishop in a line tracing back to the apostles themselves.
The diversity of early Christianity can be documented from the New Testament record itself. The book of Acts recognizes the conflict between Hebrew and Hellenists, and Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians, and Aramaic speakers and Greek speakers. The letters of Paul, Peter, John, and Jude all bear testimony to the conflicts within the Church for leadership and theology. In response to Gnostic teachings, Irenaeus created the first document explaining what is now called apostolic succession.
Initial Christian Writing
As Christianity spread, it gained certain members of the well-educated Hellenistic circle; they are sometimes bishops, but not always. They produce two types of works: theological and "apologetic," the latter working with the goal of defending the faith by reason to reject the argument against the truth of Christianity. These writers are known as the Fathers of the Church, and the study of them is called patristic. Famous Early Fathers included Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus of Lyons, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen of Alexandria.
Initial
Christian art only appears relatively late, and the first known Christian images appear around 200 AD, although there is some literary evidence that small domestic images were used before. The oldest Christian painting known to have originated from the Roman Catacomb, dating back to about AD 200, and the oldest Christian statues from the sarcophagus, dating from the early 3rd century.
Although many Jewish-occupied Jews look, as in the Dura-Europos synagogue, to have pictures of religious figures, the traditional Mosaic ban on "statues" undoubtedly retains some of the effects, even though theologians never proclaimed them. The initial rejection of these images, and the need to hide the Christian practice from persecution, leaves us with little archaeological record of early Christianity and its evolution.
Beginning of heresy
The New Testament itself speaks of the importance of maintaining a true (orthodox) doctrine and denying false teachings, showing the antiquity of the concern. Because of the biblical ban on false prophets, Christianity is always occupied by orthodox interpretation of faith. Indeed, one of the primary roles of bishops in the early Church was to determine and maintain the true faith of importance, and refute the opinions of the fighters, known as heretics. Because sometimes there are differences of opinion among the bishops about new questions, defining orthodoxy will occupy the Church for some time.
The earliest controversies are often christological; that is, they are related to the deity or humanity of Jesus. Docetism states that the humanity of Jesus is just an illusion, thus denying the Incarnation (God became human). Arianism states that Jesus, though not merely mortal beings, is not always divine and therefore, his status is inferior to the Father. Trinitarianism states that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are one being with three hypostases or people. Many groups hold dualistic beliefs, maintaining that reality is organized into two radically opposite sections: matter, seen as evil, and spirit, seen as good. Such a view raises the theology of "incarnation" which is declared heretical. Most scholars agree that the Bible teaches that both the material world and the spiritual world are created by God and therefore both are good.
The development of doctrine, the position of orthodoxy, and the relationship between the various opinions is a matter of ongoing academic debate. Since most Christians today adhere to the doctrine founded by Nicea, modern Christian theologians tend to regard the initial debate as an united orthodox position against the heretical minority. Other scholars, who used the distinction between Jewish Christians, Christian Paul, and other groups such as Marcion, argued that early Christianity was always fragmented, with competing beliefs.
Bible canon
The canon of the Bible is a set of books that Christians regard as divinely inspired and thus part of the Christian Bible. Although the Early Church used the Old Testament according to the Septuagint canon (LXX), the apostles did not leave a new set of scriptures; on the contrary the New Testament evolves over time.
The writings associated with the apostles circulated among early Christian communities. Paul's letters circulate in the form collected at the end of the 1st century. Justin Martyr, at the beginning of the second century, mentions "the apostles' memoirs, which Christians call" gospels "and which are considered equivalent to the Old Testament, written in a narrative form in which" the biblical story of God is the protagonist, Satan (or wicked/strength) is an antagonist, and God's people are agonists. "
The four gospel canons ( Tetramorph ) have existed at the time of Irenaeus, c. 160, which refers directly. At the beginning of the third century, Origen of Alexandria may have used the same 27 books as in the modern New Testament, although there are still disputes over the Hebrew canon, James, II Peter, II and III John, and Revelations. sometimes "spoken against" is called Antilegomena . By contrast, the main writings and most of what is now the New Testament is Homologoumena , or universally acknowledged for a long time, since the middle of the 2nd century or earlier. Similarly the Muratorian fragment shows that in the year 200 there was a set of Christian writings similar to the New Testament today.
In his 367th Passover letter, Athanasius, the Bishop of Alexandria, gave the earliest preserved lists of exactly the books that would become the canon of the New Testament. The African Synod of Hippo, in 393, approved the New Testament, as it exists today, along with the Septuagint, a decision repeated by the Carthaginian Council (397) and the Carthaginian Council (419). These councils are under the authority of St. Augustine, who thought the canon was closed. Likewise, the Latin edition of Damasus's Vulgate assignment, c. 383, plays a role in canon fixation in the West. In 405, Pope Innocent I sent a list of holy books to Exuperius, a Galilean bishop.
However, when the bishops and councils discuss the matter, they do not define anything new, but "ratify what has become the mind of the Church." Thus, in the fourth century, there was a unanimous vote in the West about the canon of the New Testament, and in the fifth century the East, with some exceptions, had accepted the Book of Revelation and thus had united in the canonical problem. Nonetheless, the full dogmatic articulation of the canon was not made until 1546 of the Council of Trent for Roman Catholicism, 1563 Thirty Nine Articles for the Church of England, 1647 Westminster Confession of Faith for Calvinism, and Synod 1672 of Jerusalem for Greek Orthodoxy.
Christianity in the end of ancient times (313-476)
The formation of Roman orthodoxy
Galerius, formerly one of the leading figures in the persecution, in 311 issued a decree ending the Diocletian persecution of Christianity. After stopping the persecution of Christians, Galerius ruled for another 2 years. He was later replaced by an emperor with a typical Christian tendency, Constantine the Great.
Emperor Constantine I was exposed to Christianity by his mother, Helena. At the Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312, Constantine ordered his troops to decorate their shields with a Christian symbol according to the vision that he had experienced the night before. After winning the battle, Constantine was able to claim the emperor in the West. In 313, he issued the Milan Decree, which officially legalized Christian worship.
How much of Constantine's Christianity at this point is hard to see. Roman coins printed up to eight years after the battle still retain the image of the Roman gods. Nevertheless, Constantine's accession was a turning point for the Christian Church. After his victory, Constantine supported the Church financially, built various basilicas, granted privileges (eg, exemption from certain taxes) to priests, promoted Christians to several high-ranking offices, and restored property confiscated during Diocletian's Great Persecution.
Between 324 and 330, Constantine built, almost from scratch, the new imperial capital named for him: Constantinople. It has a blatant Christian architecture, containing churches within the city walls, and has no idol temple. In accordance with the prevailing custom, Constantine was baptized on his deathbed.
Constantine also played an active role in the leadership of the Church. In 316, he acted as a judge in a North African dispute over the Donatist controversy. More importantly, in 325 he called the Council of Nicea, the first Ecumenical Council. Constantine thus established a precedent for the emperor as being accountable to God for the spiritual health of his people, and thus having an obligation to maintain orthodoxy. The emperor had to uphold doctrine, get rid of heresies, and uphold ecclesial unity.
Constantine's successor, known as Julian the Apostate, was a philosopher who, after becoming emperor, abandoned Christianity and embraced the Neo-platonic and mystical pagan form that shocked the Christian establishment. He began to reopen the pagan temples and, in order to rebuild the prestige of the old pagan beliefs, he modified them to resemble Christian traditions such as episcopal structures and public charities (previously unknown in Roman paganism). Julian's short reign ended when he died while campaigning in the East.
Later, Church Pastors wrote many theological texts, including Augustine, Gregory Nazianzus, Cyril of Jerusalem, Ambrose of Milan, Jerome, and others. Some of these fathers, like John Chrysostom and Athanasius, suffered exile, ill-treatment, or martyrdom from the Arian Byzantine Emperor. Many of their writings were translated into English in compilations from Nicea and the Post-Nicene Father.
Arianism and the first Ecumenical Council
The fourth-century popular doctrine is Arianism, the rejection of the divinity of Christ, as Arius puts it. Although this doctrine was condemned as a heresy and was eventually eliminated by the Roman Church, it remained popular underground for some time. At the end of the fourth century, Ulfilas, a Roman bishop and an Arian, was appointed the first bishop of the Goths, the Germans in many parts of Europe on the border and within the Empire. Ulfilas spread Arian Christianity among Goths steadfastly building faith among many Germanic tribes, thus helping to make them culturally different.
During this age, the first Ecumenical Council was held. They are mostly concerned about the christological dispute. The First Council of Nicea (325) and the First Council of Constantinople (381) resulted in condemning the Arian teachings as heresy and producing the Nicene Creed. Christianity_as_Roman_state_religion_ (380) "> Christianity as a Roman state religion (380) Theodosius I decides that others who do not believe in a preserved "faithful tradition", such as the Trinity, must be considered illegal bid'ah practitioners, and in 385 this produced the first case of the death of a heretic, Priscillian. Nestorianism and Sasanian Empire
During the early 5th century, the Edessa School has taught a Christological perspective which states that the divine nature and man of Christ are different people. The specific consequence of this perspective is that Mary can not properly be called the mother of God, but can only be regarded as the mother of Christ. The most famous initiator from this point of view is the Patriarch of Constantinople Nestorius. Since referring to Mary as the mother of God has become popular in many parts of the Church, this becomes a divisive issue.
The Roman Emperor Theodosius II called for the Council of Ephesus (431), with the intention of resolving the matter. The Council finally rejected Nestorius's view. Many churches that follow the Nestorian point of view break away from the Roman Church, causing great divisions. The Nestorian churches were persecuted and many followers fled to the Sasanian Empire where they were accepted.
The Sasanian Empire (Persia) had many early Christian followers closely linked to the branch of Syrian Christianity. The empire was officially a Zoroastrian and maintained a strict adherence to this faith in part to distinguish itself from the Roman Empire's religion (originally the pagan Roman religion and later Christianity). Christianity became tolerated in the Sasanian Empire and as the Roman Empire increasingly alienated heretics during the 4th and 6th centuries, the Sasanian Christian community grew rapidly. At the end of the fifth century, the Persian Church was firmly established and became independent of the Roman Church. This church evolved into what is now known as the Eastern Church.
Miaphysitism
In 451, the Council of Chalcedon was held to further clarify the christological issues surrounding Nestorianism. The council ultimately states that the divine nature and humanity of Christ are separate but both are part of one entity, a point of view rejected by many churches calling themselves miaphysites. The resulting schism created a communion of churches, including Armenian, Syrian, and Egyptian churches. Although attempts were made on reconciliation within the next few centuries, the divisions remain permanent that resulted in what is now known as Oriental Orthodoxy.
Monasticism
Monasticism is a form of asceticism in which a person accepts worldly pursuits and goes on his own as an ascetic or joins a tightly organized community. It begins at the beginning of the Church as a family of similar traditions, modeled on biblical examples and ideals, and with roots in certain strands of Judaism. John the Baptist was regarded as a typical monk, and monasticism was also inspired by the Apostolic community organization as recorded in Acts 2.
Erotic monks, or ascetics, live in solitude, while cenobitics live in communities, generally in monasteries, under rules (or codes of practice) and administered by a abbot. Initially, all Christian monks are hermits, following the example of Anthony the Great. However, the need for some form of organized spiritual guidance led Pachomius in 318 to organize many of his followers in the place of the first monastery. Soon, similar institutions were established throughout the Egyptian desert as well as the rest of the eastern part of the Roman Empire. Women are particularly interested in this movement.
The central figures in the development of monasticism were the Great Basil in the East and, in the West, Benedict, who created the famous Rule of Saint Benedict, which would be the most common rule throughout the Middle Ages, and the starting point for other monastic rules..
The Early Medieval (476-799)
The transition into the Middle Ages was a gradual and local process. Rural areas are increasing as centers of power while urban areas are declining. Although large numbers of Christians remain in the East (Greek territory), significant developments are taking place in the West (Latin region) and each takes on a different form.
The bishops of Rome, the Popes, were forced to adapt to the drastically changing circumstances. Maintaining only a nominal loyalty to the Emperor, they were forced to negotiate balances with the "barbarian rulers" of the former Roman province. In the East, the Church retains its structure and character and evolves more slowly.
Western missionary expansion
The gradual loss of dominance of the Western Roman Empire, replaced by foederati and the German empire, coincided with early missionary efforts to areas not controlled by the collapsed kingdom. Already as early as in the 5th century, missionary activities from England to the Celtic region (currently Scotland, Ireland and Wales) resulted in a competing early tradition of Celtic Christianity, which was later reintegrated under the Church in Rome.
Leading missionaries are Saint Patrick, Columba and Columbanus. Anglo-Saxon tribes who invaded South Britain some time after the abandonment of the Romans, were originally pagans, but converted to Christianity by Augustine of Canterbury in the mission of Pope Gregory the Great. Immediately as a missionary center, missionaries such as Wilfrid, Willibrord, Lullus, and Boniface will begin to transform their Saxon relatives in Germania.
The largely Christian Gallo-Roman population of Gaul (modern France) was dominated by the Franks at the beginning of the fifth century. The indigenous population was persecuted until my Clovis Frank king moved from paganism to Roman Catholicism in 496. Clovis insisted that his fellow nobles follow him, reinforcing his newly founded empire by uniting the faith of the rulers with the ruled.
Following the rise of the Frank Kingdom and the stabilizing political conditions, the Western part of the Church increased missionary activity, supported by the Merovingian kingdom as a means of pacifying troubled neighboring peoples. After the founding of a church in Utrecht by Willibrord, a counter-attack occurred when the pagan Frisian king, Radbod destroyed many Christian centers between 716 and 719. In 717, British missioner Boniface sent to help Willibrord, rebuilding churches in Frisia to continue the mission in Germany.
Byzantine iconoclasm
Following a series of severe military attacks against Muslims, Iconoclasm emerged in the early 8th century. In the 720s Byzantine Emperor Leo III the Isaurians forbade the pictorial representation of Christ, the saints, and the biblical scenes. In the West, Pope Gregory III held two synods in Rome and condemned Leo's actions. The Byzantine Council of Iconoclast at Hieria in 754, decides that the sacred portrait is heretical.
The movement destroyed much of the early artistic history of the Christian church. The iconoclastic movement itself was later defined as heretical in 787 under the Seventh Ecumenical council, but enjoyed a brief resurgence between 815 and 842.
High Middle Ages (800-1299)
Carolingian Renaissance
The Carolingian Renaissance is a period of intellectual awakening and literary culture, art, and scripture study during the late 8th and 9th centuries, mostly during the reign of Charlemagne and the pious Louis, the Frankish ruler. To overcome the illiteracy problem among priests and clerks of the palace, Charlemagne founded the school and attracted educated people from all over Europe to his palace.
Monastic Reform
Cluny
From the 6th century onwards most of the monasteries in the West were the Benedictine Order. Due to the strict adherence to the reformed Benedictine rule, the Cluny monastery became a recognized western monastic leader since the 10th century. Cluny created a large federation order in which the administrators of the branch houses functioned as deputy abbess Cluny and answered him. The Cluny Spirit was a revitalizing influence on the Norman church, at its peak from the second half of the tenth century to the beginning of the twelfth century.
CÃÆ'®teaux
The next wave of monastic reforms came with the Cistercian Movement. The first Cistercian monastery was founded in 1098, at CÃÆ'®teaux Abbey. The core of Cistercian life is returning to the literal obedience of the Benedictine rule, rejecting the development of the Benedictines. The most striking feature of reform is the return of manual labor, and in particular to fieldwork.
Inspired by Bernard of Clairvaux, the principal builder of the Cistercians, they became the main force of technological diffusion in medieval Europe. By the end of the 12th century, the Cistercian houses totaled 500, and at its peak in the 15th century the order was claimed to have nearly 750 homes. Most were built in the wilderness areas, and played a major part in bringing the isolated part of Europe into economic cultivation
Mendicant Order
A third-level monastic reform was provided by the formation of the Mendicant order. Generally known as monks, beggars live under monastic rule with traditional promises of poverty, purity, and obedience, but they emphasize preaching, missionary activity, and education, in remote monasteries. Beginning in the 12th century, the Franciscan order was instituted by the followers of Francis of Assisi, and after that the Dominican order was begun by St. Francis. Dominic.
Controversy Investigation
Controversy The investigation, or controversy of ordinary coronations, is the most significant conflict between secular and religious forces in medieval Europe. It began as a dispute in the 11th century between Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV, and Pope Gregory VII on who will appoint the bishop (coronation). The end of the lay coronation threatened to weaken the Empire's power and the ambitions of the nobles for the benefit of the Church's reform.
The bishops collect income from plantations attached to their dioceses. The nobles who hold the land (territory) for generations circulate the land within their families. However, since the bishop has no legitimate son, when a bishop dies, it is the king's right to appoint a substitute. Thus, while a king has little help in preventing the nobility from gaining a strong domain through the inheritance and dynastic marriage, a king can continue to control the land beneath his bishop's territory.
The king will give the diocese to a member of the noble family whose friendship he wants to secure. Furthermore, if a king leaves the empty diocese, he collects plantation income until a bishop is appointed, when in theory he has to pay back his income. The rare nature of these payments is a clear source of dispute. The Church wants to end this ordinary coronation because of the potential for corruption, not only from a blank view but also from other practices such as simony. Thus, the Inquiry Contest is part of the Church's efforts to reform the episcopate and provide better pastoral care.
Pope Gregory VII issued Dictatus Papae, stating that the pope himself could appoint or overthrow the bishop, or translate it to another view. Henry IV's rejection of the decree led to excommunication and incense revolt. Eventually, Henry received the remission of sins after a great public penance in the Alpine snow and donned a hair robe (see Road to Canossa), though rebellion and the coronation conflict continued.
Similarly, a similar controversy occurred in England between King Henry I and St.. Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, for the coronation and ecclesiastical earnings collected by the king during the episcopal vacancy. The English dispute was settled by Concordat London, 1107, in which the king relinquished his claim to invest the bishop but continued to demand allegiance from them in their election.
This is a partial model for the Concordat of Worms (Pactum Calixtinum), which completed the Imperial coronation controversy with a compromise that allowed the secular authorities some measure of control but was given the election of the bishop to their cathedral canon. As a symbol of compromise, the authorities placed bishops with their secular authorities symbolized by spears, and ecclesiastical authorities invested bishops with their spiritual authority symbolized by rings and staff.
Medieval Inquisition
The Medieval Inquisition was a series of Inquisitions (the Roman Catholic Church body accused of combating heresy) from about 1184, including the Episcopal Inquisition (1184-1230s) and later the Pontifical Inquisition (1230s). It was in response to movements in Europe that were considered apostate or misguided against Western Catholicism, especially the Cathars and Waldens in southern France and northern Italy. This is the first inquisition movement of many that will follow. The investigation in combination with the Albigensian Crusade was quite successful in ending heresy. Historian Thomas F. Madden has written about the popular myths about the Inquisition.
The early evangelization in Scandinavia was started by Ansgar, the Archbishop of Bremen, "The North Apostle". Ansgar, a native of Amiens, was sent with a group of monks to Danish Jutland around 820 at the time of pro-Christian Jutish king Harald Klak. The mission was only partially successful, and Ansgar returned two years later to Germany, after Harald was expelled from his kingdom.
In 829 the Ansgar went to Birka on Lake MÃÆ'¤laren, Sweden, with his citizen aide, Witmar, and a small trial was formed in 831 which included the servant of King Hergeir himself. Conversion was slow, however, and most Scandinavian lands were only completely Christianized at the time of rulers such as Saint Canute IV of Denmark and Olaf I of Norway in the years after 1000 AD.
Conversion from Slavs
Although 800 Western Europe is ruled entirely by Christian kings, Eastern and Central Europe remain the domain of missionary activity. For example, in the 9th century SS. Cyril and Methodius had extensive missionary successes in the region among the Slavic nations, translating the Bible and liturgy into Slavonic. Baptism of Kiev in 988 spread Christianity throughout Kievan Rus', establishing Christianity among Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia.
In the 9th and 10th centuries, Christianity made major inroads into Eastern Europe, including Bulgaria and Kievan Rus'. Evangelization, or Christianization, of the Slavs was initiated by one of the most literate churches in Byzantium - Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople (Photius). Byzantine Emperor Michael III chose Cyril and Methodius in response to a request from Rastislav, the king of Moravia who wanted a missionary who could minister to the Moravians in their own language.
The brothers spoke in Slavonic local languages ​​and translated the Bible and many prayer books. When the translation prepared by them was copied by a speaker from another dialect, the Old Slavonic hybrid literary language was created.
Methodius then proceeded to convert the Serbs. Some disciples returned to Bulgaria where they were welcomed by Bulgarian Knyaz Boris I who looked at the Slavonic liturgy as a way to counter the Byzantine influence in the country. In a short time the disciples Cyril and Methodius succeeded in preparing and instructing future Slavic pastors into the Glagolitic alphabet and biblical texts.
Bulgaria was officially recognized as patriarchate by Constantinople in 927, Serbia in 1346, and Russia in 1589. All these nations, however, have been converted long before these dates.
Missionaries to the Eastern and Southern Slavs were very successful in part because they used the native language of the people rather than Latin as did the Roman priests, or the Greek.
Mission to Great Moravia
When King Rastislav of Moravia asked Byzantium for teachers who could serve the Moravians in their own language, the Byzantine Emperor Michael III chose two brothers, Cyril and Methodius. Because their mother was a Slav from the interior of Thessaloniki, the two brothers were raised speaking in Slavonic local language. Once assigned, they immediately set about creating the alphabet, the Glagolitic alphabet. They then translated Scripture and liturgy into Slavic.
This Slavic dialect became the basis of the Old Slavonic Church which later evolved into the Slavonic Church which is a common liturgical language still used by the Russian Orthodox Church and other Slavic Orthodox Christians. The missionaries to the Eastern and Southern Slavs have had great success in part because they use people's native language instead of Latin or Greek. In Great Moravia, Constantine and Methodius met with Frank missionaries from Germany, representing Western or Latin branches of the Church, and more specifically representing the Holy Roman Empire founded by Charlemagne, and committed to linguistic and cultural uniformity. They insisted on using the Latin liturgy, and they regarded the Moravians and Slavs as part of a legitimate mission field.
As the friction develops, the brothers, who do not want to be the cause of the dispute among Christians, go to Rome to meet the Pope, seeking an agreement that will avoid a dispute between missionaries in the field. Constantine entered the monastery in Rome, taking the name of Cyril, now remembered. However, he died only a few weeks later.
Pope Adrian II gave Methodius the title of Archbishop Sirmium (now Sremska Mitrovica in Serbia) and sent it back in 869, with jurisdiction over all of Moravia and Pannonia, and authorization to use the Slavonic Liturgy. However, soon, Prince Ratislav, who initially invited his brothers to Moravia, died, and his successor did not support Methodius. In 870, the kings of Frank, Louis, and his bishop overthrew Methodius at the synod at Ratisbon, and imprisoned him for more than two years. Pope John VIII guarantees his release, but orders him to stop using the Slavonic Liturgy.
In 878, Methodius was summoned to Rome on allegations of heresy and using Slavonic. This time Pope John was convinced by the arguments Methodius made in his defense and sent him back cleared of all charges, and with permission to use Slavonic. The bishop of Carolingian, who succeeded him, bewitched, suppressed the Slavonic Liturgy and forced the Methodius followers into exile. Many found refuge with Knyaz Boris of Bulgaria, under whom they rearranged the Slavic-speaking Church. Meanwhile, John's successor adopted a Latin-only policy that lasted for centuries.
Bulgarian Conversions
Bulgaria was a pagan nation since its inception in 681 to 864 when Boris I (852-889) converted to Christianity. The reason for the decision is complicated; the most important factor is that Bulgaria lies between two powerful Christian kingdoms, Byzantium and Eastern Francia; The Christian doctrine specifically supports the position of the king as God's representative on Earth, while Boris also sees it as a way of resolving differences between the Bulgar and the Slavs.
In 885 some of the disciples of Cyril and Methodius, including Ohrid Clement, Naum of Preslav and Angelaruis, returned to Bulgaria where they were greeted by Boris I who saw the Slavonic liturgy as a way to counter the Byzantine influence of the country. In a short time they succeeded in preparing and instructing future Bulgarian priests into the Glagolitic alphabet and biblical texts. As a result of the Preslav Council in 893, Bulgaria expelled the Greek priest and proclaimed Old Bulgarian languages ​​as the official language of the church and state.
Convert Rus'
The successful conversion of the Bulgarians facilitated the conversion of other East Slav residents, especially Rus', the predecessors of the people of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, as well as Rusyns. At the beginning of the 11th century most of the pagan Slavic worlds, including Rus', Bulgarians and Serbs, had been converted to Byzantine Christianity. Traditional events associated with Rus' conversion were the christening of Vladimir Kiev in 989. However, documented Christianity has preceded this event in the city of Kiev and in Georgia. Today the Russian Orthodox Church is the largest Orthodox Church.
Controversy and the Crusades divide East and West
Grow tension between East and West
Cracks and cracks in Christian unity that caused the East-West Schism began to become apparent in the early 4th century. Cultural, political, and linguistic differences are often mixed with theology, leading to divisions.
The transfer of the Roman capital to Constantinople inevitably brought distrust, competition, and even jealousy to the relationship of two great views, Rome and Constantinople. It was easy for Rome to be jealous of Constantinople at that moment to quickly lose his political advantage. The banquet was also aided by the German invasion of the West, which effectively weakened contacts. The emergence of Islam by the conquest of most of the Mediterranean coastline (not to mention the infidel slave in the Balkans at the same time) further intensified this separation by moving the physical slices between the two worlds. The united and homogenous Mediterranean world is rapidly disappearing. Communication between East and Western Greece in the 7th century has become dangerous and practically stopped.
Two basic problems are involved: the primacy of the bishop of Rome and theological implications add a clause to the Nicene Creed, known as the Filioque clause. These doctrinal issues were first discussed openly in the patriarchate of Photius.
In the fifth century, the Christian Order was divided into a pentarchy of five views with Rome given an advantage. The four Eastern views of the pentarchy consider this to be determined by a canonical decision and do not involve the hegemony of a local church or patriarchate over another. However, Rome begins to interpret its preeminence in terms of sovereignty, as God-given rights involving universal jurisdiction in the Church. The kinship and conciliar character of the Church, in essence, is gradually abandoned for the unlimited supremacy of pope's rule over the whole Church. These ideas were finally given a systematic expression in the West during the Gregorian Reformation movement in the 11th century.
The Eastern Churches view Rome's understanding of the nature of episcopal force as a direct opposition to the Church's structure which is essentially conciliar and thus sees the two ecclesiologies as conflicting. For them, in particular, the virtue of Simon Peter could never be the exclusive prerogative of one of the bishops. All bishops should, like St. Peter, acknowledging Jesus as the Christ and, thus, all was Peter's successor. Churches in the East gave Roman an edge, but not supremacy, the Pope became the first among equals but not perfect and not with absolute authority.
The other annoying thing for East Christianity is the Western usage of the Filioque clause - meaning "and the Son" - in the Nicene Creed. It also develops gradually and enters the Creed from time to time. The problem is an additional by the West from the Latin Filioque clause on the Creed, as in "Holy Spirit... originating from the Father and the Son" ", where the original Credo, approved by the council and still used today by the Eastern Orthodox simply states "the Holy Spirit, the God and the Giver of Life, who are from the Father." The Eastern Church held that the phrase was added unilaterally, and therefore invalid, because the East was never consulted.
In the final analysis, only other ecumenical councils can introduce such a change. Indeed, the councils, which compose the original Credo, have explicitly prohibited the reduction or addition to the text. In addition to this ecclesiological problem, the Eastern Church also considers the Filioque clause unacceptable on a dogmatic basis. Theologically, Latin interpolation is unacceptable because it implies that the Spirit now has two sources of origin and procession, the Father and the Son, not just the Father.
Photian Schism
In the 9th century, a controversy emerged between the East (Byzantine, Greek Orthodox) and Western Christianity (Latin, Roman Catholicism) precipitated by the opposition of the Roman Pontiff John VII for the appointment by the Byzantine Emperor Michael III of Photios I to the patriarchal position of Constantinople. Photius was denied apology by the pope for previous points of dispute between East and West. Photios refused to accept the supremacy of the pope in the East or accept the clause Filioque . The Latin delegation on the council of consecration forced him to accept a clause to secure their support.
The controversy also involves the rights of the jurisdiction of the Eastern and Western Churches in the Bulgarian church, as well as the doctrinal dispute over the Filioque clause ("and" of the Son "). It was added to the Nicene Creed by the Latin church, which became the theological breaking point in the Great East-West Schism at the end of the eleventh century.
Photios did give concessions on the right issue of jurisdiction about Bulgaria and the papal envoys were made with the return of Bulgaria to Rome. This concession, however, is purely nominal, as returning Bulgaria to the Byzantine rite in 870 is already guaranteed for it an autocephalous church. Without the consent of Boris I of Bulgaria, the papacy can not uphold its claims.
The East-West Schism, or the Great Schism, separates the Church into Western (Latin) and Eastern (Greek) branches, namely, Western Catholic and Eastern Orthodox. This was the first major division since certain groups in the East rejected the decree of the Chalcedon Council (see Oriental Orthodoxy), and were much more significant. Though usually dated to 1054, the East-West Schism is actually the result of an extension of the estrangement between Latin and Greek Christendom over the virtues of pope and certain doctrinal matters such as Filioque , but intensified by cultural and linguistic differences.
The "official" schism of 1054 was the excommunication of Patriarch Michael Cerularius of Constantinople, followed by the exclusion of the pope's envoy. The reconciliation effort was made in 1274 (by the Second Lyon Council) and in 1439 (by the Council of Basel), but in every case the eastern hierarchy which approved the union was rejected by the Orthodox as a whole, although reconciliation was achieved between the West and what is now called " Catholic Rite of the East ". More recently, in 1965, communal excommunication was repealed by the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople, though division persists.
Both groups were descended from the Early Church, both recognizing the apostolic succession of each bishop, and the validity of each sacrament. Although both recognize the primacy of the Bishop of Rome, the Eastern Orthodox understands this as an honorific superiority with ecclesiastical authority limited or absent in other dioceses.
The Eastern Orthodox considers the Papacy to take on a monarchical characteristic that is inconsistent with the tradition of the church.
The latter offense is often thought to have emerged after the capture and dismissal of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Crusades against Christians in the East by Roman Catholic crusaders are not exclusive to the Mediterranean though (see also North Crusades and Ice Battles). The dismissal of Constantinople and the Church of Sacred Wisdom and the formation of the Latin Empire as an apparent attempt to replace the Orthodox Byzantine Empire in 1204 was seen with some resentment to this day.
Many people in the East see Western action as a key determinant of Byzantine weakness. This led to the eventual conquest of the Empire and fell to Islam. In 2004, Pope John Paul II delivered an official apology for the dismissal of Constantinople in 1204; apologies formally accepted by Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople. Many things are stolen so far: holy relic, wealth, and many other items, still held in various cities of Western Europe, especially Venice, Italy.
Crusade
In general, the Crusades refers to campaigns in the Holy Land against Muslim troops sponsored by the Papacy. There are other crusades against Islamic forces in southern Spain, southern Italy, and Sicily, as well as the Teutonic warrior campaign against the pagan strongholds in northern-eastern Europe (see North Crusade). Some crusades such as the Fourth Crusade were waged in the Christian world against perceived heretical and schismatic groups (see also the Battle of Ice and the Albigensian Crusade).
The Holy Land had become part of the Roman Empire, and thus the Byzantine Empire, until the conquest of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries. After that, Christians were generally allowed to visit holy places in the Holy Land until 1071, when the Seljuk Turks closed the Christian pilgrimage and attacked the Byzantines, defeating them at the Battle of Manzikert.
Emperor Alexius I asked for help from Pope Urban II (1088-1099) to help resist the Islamic aggression. He may expect money from the pope to hire mercenaries. Instead, Urban II called the Knights of Christendom in a speech made at the Clermont Council on 27 November 1095, combining the idea of ​​a pilgrimage to the Holy Land by waging a holy war against the unbelievers.
The First Crusade seized Antioch in 1099 and later Jerusalem. The Second Crusade took place in 1145 when Edessa was recaptured by the forces of Islam. Jerusalem will be held until 1187 and the Third Crusade, renowned for the battle between Richard the Lionheart and Saladin. The Fourth Crusade, started by Innocent III in 1202, was intended to reclaim the Holy Land but was soon overthrown by Venetians who used the power to fire the Christian city of Zara.
Finally, the Crusaders arrived in Constantinople. Rather than proceeding to the Holy Land, the Crusaders actually sacked Constantinople and other parts of Asia Minor effectively built the Latin Constantinople Empire in Greece and Asia Minor. This was the last crusade sponsored by the papacy, with the crusades subsequently sponsored by individuals.
Jerusalem was held by crusaders for almost a century, and other forts in the Near East would remain in the possession of Christianity for longer. The Crusades in the Holy Land ultimately failed to build permanent Christian monarchies. The expansion of Islam into Europe will renew and remain a threat for centuries culminating in Suleiman the Great's campaign in the 16th century.
Crusades in southern Spain, southern Italy, and Sicily eventually led to the demise of Islamic rule in Europe. The Teutonic knights expanded the Christian area of ​​Eastern Europe, and the much rarer crusades in the Christian world, such as the Albigensian Crusade, achieved their goal of maintaining doctrinal unity.
Hesychast Controversy
In 1337 Hesychasm - a mystical teaching on Mount Athos was attacked by Barlaam of Calabria, a abbot in Constantinople. Barlaam proposes a more intellectual and propositional approach to the knowledge of God than is taught by Hesychast. Hesychasm is a form of continuous prayer or prayer of experience, which is explicitly referred to as contemplation that focuses on the idea of ​​silence and the unique mystical idea of ​​light as a vehicle for knowing God.
Gregory Palamas, after which Archbishop of Thessalonica, defended Hesychasm. Several synods took one position or another until 1351 in a synod under the presidency of Emperor John VI Cantacuzenus, the doctrine of Hesychast founded as the doctrine of the Orthodox Church. his theology is very interesting in the East for authorizing the use of icons as a vehicle of contemplation of divine light.
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Eastern Orthodox Detention (1453-1850)
The fall of Constantinople
In 1453, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Empire. At this time Egypt has been under the control of Muslims for seven centuries, but the Orthodox is very strong in Russia which recently gained autocephalous status; and thus Moscow calls itself the Third Rome, as the heir of the culture of Constantinople.
Under Ottoman rule, the Greek Orthodox Church gained substantial power as an autonomous millet. The ecumenical patriarch is the religious and administrative ruler of all the "Greek Orthodox peoples" (Ottoman administrative unit), which includes all the Eastern Orthodox subjects of the Empire.
Eastern Christians who fled from Constantinople, and the Greek manuscripts they brought with them, were one of the factors driving the literary awakening in the West today.
Isolation from the West
As a result of the Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, and the Fall of Constantinople, the entire Balkan and Near East Orthodox communion were suddenly isolated from the West. Over the next four hundred years, it will be limited in a hostile Islamic world, with which it has little in common in religion or culture. The Russian Orthodox Church is the only part of the Orthodox fellowship that remains beyond the control of the Ottoman Empire.
This is, in part, because of this geographical and intellectual confinement that Eastern Orthodox sounds were not heard during the Reformation in 16th century Europe. As a result, this important theological debate often seems strange and distorted to the Orthodox. They never took part in it and thus both the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation were part of their theological framework.
Religious rights under the Ottoman Empire
The new Ottoman government conquered the Byzantine Empire following Islamic law when confronted with a conquered Christian population. Christians are officially tolerated as the People of the Book. Thus, the canonical and hierarchical organization of the Church is not significantly impaired and its government continues to function. One of the first things Mehmet the Conqueror did was to let the Church choose a new patriarch, Gennadius Scholarius.
Because Islamic law does not distinguish between nationality and religion, all Christians, regardless of their language or nationality, are regarded as one millet, or nation. Patriarchs, as the highest ranking hierarchy, are then invested with civil and religious authority and make ethnark, the head of the entire Christian Orthodox population. This means that all Orthodox Churches within Ottoman territory are under the control of Constantinople. However, these rights and privileges, including freedom of worship and religious organization, are often founded in principle but rarely relate to reality. Christians are seen as second-class citizens, and the legal protections they rely on are subject to the Sultan's and sublime behavior.
Under the Ottoman occupation, the Church could no longer be a witness to Christ. Christian missionary work among Muslims is illegal and dangerous, while conversion to Islam is completely legitimate and permissible. People who convert to Islam who return to Orthodox are executed as apostates. No new church can be built and even the ringing of church bells is forbidden. Hagia Sophia and Parthenon, who had been a Christian church for almost a millennium, were converted into mosques. The education of the clergy and the Christian population ceases altogether or reduced to the most basic element. Violent persecution of Christians is common, and culminates in the Armenian, Assyrian and Greek genocide.
Corruption
The Orthodox Church finds itself subject to the Turkish corruption system. The patriarchal throne is often sold to the highest bidder, while a new patriarchal coronation accompanied by large payments to the government. To recover their losses, patriarchs and bishops levy taxes in local parishes and their clergy.
Some patriarchs between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries died naturally while in office. Forcible seizure, seclusion, hanging, drowning, and patriarchal poisoning are well documented. Hierarchical positions are also often dangerous. Hanging patriarch Gregory V from patriarchal gates at Easter 1821 accompanied by the execution of two metropolitan and twelve bishops.
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The Early Middle Ages and Early Renaissance (1300-1520)
Papal Avignon (1309-1378)
The Avignon papacy, sometimes referred to as Babylonian Captivity, was a period from 1309 to 1378 for seven Popes living in Avignon, in modern-day France. That period was one of the conflicts and controversies in which the French Kings held great powers over the Papacy and rulers across Europe felt ruled out by a new papal based in France.
The problem peaked in 1378 when, Gregory XI died while visiting Rome. A papal conclave meets in Rome and chooses Urban VI, an Italian. Urban immediately alienated the French cardinals, and they held a second conclave that chose Robert from Geneva to replace Gregory XI, initiating the Western Schism.
Western Schism (1378-1416)
The Western schism, or the Pontifical Skyscraper, is a prolonged crisis period in the Latin Christian World from 1378 to 1416, when two or more complainants came to Rome and there was a conflict of legitimate rights holders. Conflicts are political, not doctrinal.
In 1309, Pope Clement V, due to political considerations, moved to Avignon in southern France and execute his papacy there. For sixty-nine years the popes lived in Avignon rather than in Rome. This is not only a source of obvious confusion but also political resentment because the prestige and influence of Rome diminish without a resident pop. Although Pope Gregory XI, a Frenchman, returned to Rome in 1378, the dispute between the Italian and French factions intensified, especially after his subsequent death.
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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