The French Revolution (French: RÃÆ' Â © volution franÃÆ'§aise [? Ev? Lysj? F? S ?: Z] ) was a period of far-reaching social and political upheaval in France and its colonies that lasted from 1789 to 1799. It was partially brought forward by Napoleon during the later expansion of the French Empire. The Revolution overthrew the monarchy, founded a republic, catalyzed the period of violence of political turmoil, and finally culminated in a dictatorship under Napoleon which brought many of its principles to the areas he conquered in Western Europe and beyond. Inspired by liberal and radical ideas, the Revolution greatly changed the course of modern history, which triggered the global decline of absolute monarchy as it replaced it with the republic and liberal democracy. Through the Revolutionary War, it unleashed a wave of global conflict that extends from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history.
The cause of the French Revolution is very complex and is still disputed among historians. After the Seven Years War and the American Revolution, the French government was deeply indebted. It seeks to recover its financial status through an unpopular, highly regressive tax scheme. Leading the Revolution, many years of poor harvest exacerbated by the deregulation of the wheat industry also fueled the popular hatred of the privileges enjoyed by the aristocracy and Catholic priests of the established church. Some historians hold something similar to what Thomas Jefferson preached: that the French had been "awakened by our [American] Revolution." The demands for change were formulated in terms of the ideals of the Enlightenment and contributed to the Estates General meeting in May 1789. During the first year of the Revolution, members of the Third Estate took control, the Bastille was attacked in July, the Declaration of Human and Citizen Rights was ratified at August, and a women's march in Versailles that forced the royal court back to Paris in October. The main event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from Ancien RÃ © Â © gime .
The next few years present a political struggle between the various liberal assemblies and the right-wing monarchist who intend to thwart major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy. In an important event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793.
External threats closely shape the course of the Revolution. The Revolutionary War that began in 1792 finally featured a French victory that facilitated the conquest of the Italian Peninsula, Low Countries and most of the western Rhine - an achievement that had eluded the previous French government for centuries. Internally, popular agitation radicalized the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and Jacobin. The dictatorship imposed by the Committee on Public Security during the Reign of Terror, from 1793 to 1794, established price controls on food and other goods, abolished slavery in French colonies abroad, defined the Catholic church (the Christianized society) and created the secular Republican Calendar , the religious leaders were expelled, and the new republic's border was secured from its enemies. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary courts during the Terror, with estimates ranging from 16,000 to 40,000, ranging from aristocrats to "suspected" revolution enemies.
After the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive board known as the Directory took over the power of the French state in 1795. They postponed elections, refused debts - resulted in financial instability, persecution of Catholic clergy, and carried out significant military conquests abroad. Convicted of corruption, Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. Napoleon, who became a hero of the Revolution through his popular military campaign, founded the Consulate and then the First Empire, set the stage for a wider arrangement. global conflict in Napoleonic Wars.
The modern era has grown in the shadow of the French Revolution. Almost all future revolutionary movements look back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The main phrases and cultural symbols, such as La Marseillaise and LibertÃÆ'Â ©, fraternitÃÆ'Â ©, ÃÆ'Â © galitÃÆ'Â ©, ou la mort , became a loud call for other big turmoil in modern history, including the Russian Revolution over a century later.
The values ​​and institutions of the Revolution dominated French politics to this day. The revolution resulted in the suppression of feudal systems, individual emancipation, the division of greater property rights, the abolition of the privileges of noble birth, and the formation of equality among men. The French Revolution is different from other revolutions because it is not only national, because it is meant to benefit all humanity.
Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of the republic and democracy. It became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total warfare by regulating French resources and the lives of its citizens toward the goal of military conquest. Some of its central documents, such as the Declaration of Human Rights and Citizens, continue to inspire movements for abolitionism and universal suffrage in the next century.
Video French Revolution
Cause
Historians have pointed to many of the events and factors within the Ancient RÃÆ' © gime that led to the Revolution. Increased social and economic imbalances, new political ideas emerging from the Enlightenment, economic mismanagement, environmental factors that led to agricultural failure, unmanageable national debt, and political mismanagement on the part of King Louis XVI have all been cited as laying the foundation for Revolution.
During the eighteenth century, came the so-called philosopher JÃÆ'¼rgen Habermas as the idea of ​​"public space" in France and elsewhere in Europe. Habermas argues that the dominant cultural model of the 17th century France is a "representational" culture, based on the one-sided need to "represent" forces with one active and another passive side. A perfect example is the Palace of Versailles, which is meant to overwhelm visitors' feelings and convince one of the greatness of the French and Louis XIV nations. Beginning in the early 18th century, "public spaces" emerged as "critical" in which both parties were active. Examples of public sphere include newspapers, journals, Masonic lodges, coffee shops and reading clubs where people either directly or virtually through printed words are debated and discussed the issue. In France, the rise of public space beyond the control of the state led to a shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. Likewise, while in the seventeenth century the court had decided what was culturally good and what was not, by the 18th century the judgment of the court was of little significance and the consumer became the determinant of cultural tastes. In the 1750s, during Querelle des Bouffons on the question of the quality of Italian music vs. France, the partisans of both sides called on the French public "because it alone has the right to decide whether the work will be preserved for the child grandchildren or will be used by merchants as wrapping paper ". In 1782, Louis-SÃ © Â © bastien Mercier wrote: "The word court no longer inspires the admiration of us as in the time of Louis XIV.Reading opinion is no longer accepted from the court, no longer breaks any reputation.. The court's decision is opposed, someone said publicly that it does not understand anything, has no idea about it and can not have it. "It is undeniable, the belief that public opinion has the right to decide cultural questions and not delay the trial transforms itself into a demand that the public also has a voice for political questions as well.
Economy in Ancien RÃÆ' Â © gime during the years before the Revolution experienced instability. The sequence of events leading up to the Revolution includes the fiscal problems of national governments caused by inefficient tax systems and expenditures for major wars. Attempts to challenge British naval and commercial forces in the Seven Years War are costly disasters, with the loss of French colonial treasures in the North American continent and the destruction of the French Navy. The French troops were rebuilt, and bitterly lost many French overseas colonies to the British Empire during the Seven Years' War, Louis XVI desperately wanted to give military and military support to American rebels. After the British surrendered to the Battle of Saratoga, France sent 10,000 troops and millions of dollars to the rebels. Despite achieving independence for the Thirteen Colonies, France was deeply indebted to the American Revolutionary War. The inefficient and outdated French financial system can not afford this debt. Faced with the financial crisis, the king summoned General Plantation, who was recommended by the Assembly of Prominent People in 1787 for the first time in more than a century.
France suffered severe economic depression so there was not enough food to carry around. Poor harvests that last for several years and inadequate transportation systems contribute to making food more expensive. Like most monarchies, the upper classes are always insured stable lives, so while the rich remain very rich, the majority of the French population is hungry. Many are so poor that they can not even feed their families and are forced to commit theft or prostitution to survive. Meanwhile, the royal palace in Versailles was isolated from and indifferent to the escalating crisis. While in the theory of King Louis XVI is an absolute king, in practice he is often hesitant and known to retreat when faced with strong opposition. While he reduces government spending, his opponents at parlements successfully thwart his attempts to impose much needed reforms. Enlightenment has produced many authors, pamphlets, and publishers who can inform or inflame public opinion. The opposition uses this source to mobilize public opinion against the monarchy, which in turn tries to suppress the underground literature.
Many other factors involved irritation and aspirations given the focus by the emergence of the ideals of the Enlightenment. This includes the hatred of royal absolutism; hatred by peasants, workers and bourgeois against the traditional seigneurial privileges possessed by the nobility; resentment of the Catholic Church's influence over public policy and institutions; aspirations for religious freedom; the hatred of aristocratic bishops by poor rural pastors; aspirations for social, political and economic equality, and (especially as the Revolution develops) republicanism; hatred of Queen Marie-Antoinette, who is accused of being an extravagant and Austrian spy; and anger against the King for dismissing ministers, including finance minister Jacques Necker, who is popularly seen as a people's representative.
Freemasons play an important role in the revolution. Initially very apolitical, the Freemasons were radicalized at the end of the 18th century through the introduction of a higher class, which emphasized the theme of freedom, equality, and brotherhood. Almost every major player in the Revolution was a Freemason and these themes became the widely recognized slogan of the revolution.
Maps French Revolution
Ancien RÃÆ' Â © gime
Financial crisis
In 1774 Louis XVI ascended to the throne in the midst of a financial crisis in which the state was faced with a budget deficit and close to bankruptcy. This was partly due to France's costly involvement in the Seven Years' War and then the American Revolutionary War. In May 1776, Turgot's finance minister was dismissed, having failed to enact reform. The following year, Jacques Necker, a foreigner, was appointed General Controller. He can not be appointed as an official minister because he is a Protestant.
Necker recognizes that a highly regressive state tax system makes the lower classes a burden, while many exceptions exist for nobles and priests. He argues that the country can not be taxed higher; that tax exemptions for nobles and priests should be reduced; and proposed that borrowing more money would solve the country's fiscal deficiencies. Necker published a report in support of this claim which underestimated the deficit of about 36 million livres, and proposed to limit the power of parlements .
This was not well received by the King's ministers, and Necker, hoping to strengthen his position, on the grounds of becoming a minister. The king refused, Necker was dismissed, and Charles Alexandre de Calonne was appointed to Supervision. Calonne initially spent the money, but she quickly became aware of the critical financial situation and proposed a new tax code.
The proposals include a consistent land tax, which will include pirating nobles and priests. Facing opposition from the shelters, Calonne arranges the call of the Leaders Assembly. But the Assembly failed to support Calonne's proposal instead of undermining his position through his criticism. In response, the King announced the calling of Estates-General for May 1789, the first time the body has been called since 1614. This is a sign that the Bourbon monarchy is in a state of weakness and is subject to the demands of its people.
Estates-General 1789
The Estates-General is organized into three areas: priests, nobles, and all of France. It last met in 1614. Elections were held in the spring of 1789; the eligibility requirements for Third Estate are for French-born or naturalized men, aged 25 or over, who live where voting will take place and who pays taxes. Strong participation generated 1,201 delegates, including 303 priests, 291 nobles and 610 Third Estate members. The First Estate represents 100,000 Catholic priests; The Church has about 10% of the land and collects its own taxes (tithe) on the farmers. The lands were controlled by bishops and abbots of monasteries, but two-thirds of the 303 delegates from First Estate were ordinary parish priests; only 51 are bishops. The Second Estate represents the nobility, about 400,000 men and women who own about 25% of the land and collect seigneurial fees and rent from their farmers' tenants. About a third of these deputies are nobles, mostly with small holdings. The Third Estate Representation is duplicated to 610 people, representing 95% of the population. Half of them are well-educated lawyers or local officials. Nearly a third are in commerce or industry; 51 is a rich landowner.
To help delegates, the "Complaint Book" ( cahiers de dolÃÆ' Â © ances ) is compiled into the problem list. The books articulated seemingly radical ideas only months before; however, most support the monarchy system in general. Many assume Estates-General will approve future taxes, and the ideals of the Enlightenment are relatively rare.
Pamphlets by liberal nobles and priests became widespread after the lifting of press censorship. The AbbÃÆ' © © SieyÃÆ'¨s, a Catholic theorist and priest, holds the importance of the Third Estate in the pamphlet Qu'est-ce que le tiers ÃÆ' Â © tat? ( What is Third Estate? ) was published in January 1789. He asserted: "What is Third Estate? Everything What has happened till now in the political order? want something? "
The Estates-General met at the Grands Salles des Menus-Plaisirs in Versailles on 5 May 1789 and opened with a three-hour speech by Necker. The Third Estate demands that the credentials of the deputies be verified by all deputies, rather than any estates that verify the credentials of its own members, but negotiations with other estates fail to achieve this. The commoners appealed to the 'ulama, who asked for more time. Necker then states that each estate must verify the credentials of its own members and that the king should act as an arbitrator.
National Assembly (1789)
The middle class are the ones who fanned the fire of the revolution. They established the National Assembly and tried to suppress the aristocracy to spread their money evenly between the upper, middle and lower classes. On 10 June 1789 AbbÃÆ'Â © SieyÃÆ'¨s moved that Third Estate, now meeting as Communes (English: "Commons") went on to verify his own power and invited the other two estates to take part, but not waiting for them. They went on to do it two days later, completing the process on June 17th. Then they chose a far more radical action, declaring themselves as the National Assembly, an assembly not of Plantation but of "People". They invite other orders to join them, but insist that they intend to do state affairs with or without them.
In an effort to keep control of the process and prevent the Assembly from convening, Louis XVI ordered the closure of the Salle des ãÆ' tats where the Assembly meets, making the excuse that the carpenters needed to prepare the hall for the royal speech in two days. The weather did not allow the meeting outdoors, and fearing an attack ordered by Louis XVI, they met on a tennis court outside Versailles, where they started swearing at the Tennis Court Oath (June 20th 1789) in which they agreed not to split up they have given France a constitution. The majority of the clerical representatives soon joined them, as did the 47 members of the nobility. On June 27, the royal party openly surrendered, although the military began to arrive in large numbers around Paris and Versailles. A support message for the Assembly is poured from Paris and other French cities.
Constitutional Monarchy
National Constituent Assembly (July 1789 - September 1791)
Storm of the Bastille
At this time, Necker has gained hostility from many French court members for the overt manipulation of public opinion. Marie Antoinette, the King's brother, the Comte d'Artois, and other conservative members of the King's secret council urged him to dismiss Necker as a financial advisor. On July 11, 1789, after Necker issued an inaccurate government debt account and made it available to the public, the King dismissed him, and completely restructured the finance ministry at the same time.
Many Parisians regarded Louis's actions directed against the Assembly and began to open up revolts when they heard the news the next day. They are also afraid that soldiers who come - mostly foreign mercenaries - have been called to close the National Constituent Assembly. The hearing, meeting at Versailles, went to a nonstop session to prevent another eviction from their meeting place. Paris was soon consumed by widespread unrest, chaos, and looting. The masses soon received the backing of several French Guards, armed and trained soldiers.
On July 14, the rebels turned their eyes on the big guns and storage of ammunition inside Bastille castle, which was also regarded as a symbol of the power of the kingdom. After several hours of fighting, the jail fell that afternoon. Despite ordering a ceasefire, which prevented the massacre, Governor Marquis Bernard-Renà © © de Launay was beaten, stabbed and decapitated; his head placed on a spear and paraded around the city. Although the fortress had only seven prisoners (four forger, two nobles who were arrested for immoral behavior, and a murder suspect), the Bastille became a powerful symbol of everything that was hated under Ancien Rà ©  © gime. Returning to HÃÆ'Â'tel de Ville (city hall), the masses accused the prestige vÃÆ'Â't des marchands (approx., Mayor) Jacques de Flesselles of treason and slaughtered him.
The King, worried about violence, retreated, at least for now. Marquis de Lafayette took over the command of the National Guard in Paris. Jean-Sylvain Bailly, president of the Assembly at the Tennis Court Oath, became city mayor under a new governmental structure known as communes. The king visited Paris, where, on July 17, he received a cockade tricolore, screams of Vive la Nation and Vive le Roi ("Long live the king").
Necker was called for power, but his victory was short-lived. A clever financier, but a less polished politician, excessive Necker plays his hand by demanding and obtaining general amnesty, losing much of the people's support.
As civil authority rapidly deteriorated, with random acts of violence and theft spread throughout the country, noble members, worried for their safety, fled to neighboring countries; many of them, as they are called, funded the counter-revolutionary cause in France and urged foreign kings to offer military support to counter-revolution.
By the end of July, the spirit of popular sovereignty had spread throughout France. In rural areas, many commoners began to form militia and arm themselves with foreign invasions: some attacked the nobility as part of a common agrarian insurrection known as "la Grande Peur" ("the Great Fear"). In addition, wild rumors and paranoia caused widespread riots and civil disturbances that contributed to the collapse of law and order.
Removal of feudalism
On August 4 and 11, 1789 the National Constituent Assembly abolished privileges and feudalism (many peasant uprisings almost brought feudalism to an end) in the August Decree, wiping out private slavery, exclusive hunting rights and other seigneurial rights from Second Estate (nobility ).
Also the tithe (10% tax for the Church, collected by First Estate (priests)) was abolished which has been a major source of income for many pastors. For several hours, nobles, priests, cities, provinces, companies, and cities lost their privileges.
Historian Georges Lefebvre summarizes the work of the night:
Without debating the Assembly enthusiastically adopting the equation of taxation and the redemption of all rights of manures except those involving private slavery - which must be removed without compensation. Other proposals are followed by equal success: equality of judicial punishment, recognition of all persons against public office, abolition of office posts, tithes conversion into payments subjected to redemption, freedom of worship, pluralistic prohibition of recipients... Provincial and municipal privileges offered as the ultimate sacrifice.
Initially farmers should pay for the release of seigneurial contributions; These contributions affect more than a quarter of agricultural land in France and provide most of the revenue from landowners. The majority refused to pay and in 1793 the obligation was canceled. Thus the peasants get their land free, and no longer pay tithing to the church.
Furet emphasized that the August 1789 decree survived and became an integral part of
the founders of modern French texts. They destroy the aristocratic society from top to bottom, along with its dependency structure and privilege. For this structure they are replacing modern, autonomous individuals, free to do anything that is not prohibited by law... The revolution thus distinguishes itself early enough by its radical individualism
The old judicial system, based on 13 regional regions, was postponed in November 1789, and was officially abolished in September 1790. The old institutional pillar of the old regime has disappeared overnight.
Human Rights Declaration
On August 26, 1789 the Assembly published the Declaration of Human and Citizen Rights, consisting of a statement of principles rather than a constitution with legal effect. The declaration was directly influenced by Thomas Jefferson who worked with General Lafayette, who introduced it.
The National Constituent Assembly functions not only as a legislative body, but also as an agency to draft a new constitution.
Writing the first constitution
Necker, Mounier, Lally-Tollendal and others argue against the senate, with members appointed by the crown on the nomination of the people. Most nobles argued for aristocratic assemblies chosen by the nobles. Popular parties performed on that day: France will have a single and unicameral assembly. The king only maintains a "strangling veto"; he can delay the application of the law, but does not block it absolutely. The Assembly eventually replaced the historic province with 83 dÃÆ' Â © partsements, that were uniformly managed and more or less the same in the region and population.
Amid the preoccupation of the Assembly with constitutional matters, the financial crisis continued unharmed, and the deficit only increased. HonorÃÆ'Â © Mirabeau now leads the move to address this issue, and the Assembly gave Necker a complete financial dictatorship.
Women in March at Versailles
Fueled by a reception rumor for the King's bodyguards on October 1, 1789, in which the national cockade had been trampled, on October 5, 1789, a crowd of women began gathering in the Paris market. The women first marched to HÃÆ'Â'tel de Ville, demanding that city officials overcome their concerns. The women responded to the harsh economic situation they faced, especially the lack of bread. They also demand an end to the kingdom's efforts to block the National Assembly, and for the King and his government to move to Paris as a sign of good faith in overcoming widespread poverty.
Getting unsatisfactory responses from city officials, as many as 7,000 women joined the parade to Versailles, carrying guns and smaller weapons. Twenty thousand National Guards under Lafayette's command responded to maintaining order, and mob members stormed the palace, killing several guards. Lafayette eventually persuaded the king to agree to the mass demands that the monarchy move to Paris.
On 6 October 1789, the King and the royal family moved from Versailles to Paris under the "protection" of the National Guard, thereby legitimizing the National Assembly.
Revolution and Church
The revolution caused a great shift of power from the Roman Catholic Church to the state. Under Ancien RÃÆ' Â © gime , the Church has become the largest single landowner in the country, owning about 10% of the land in the kingdom. The church is exempt from paying taxes to the government, while it is subject to tithes - a 10% tax on income, often collected in the form of crops - in the general population, only a small part which is then redistributed to the poor..
The hatred of the Church weakened its strength during the opening of the General Plantation in May 1789. The Church composed the First Plantation with 130,000 members of the clergy. When the National Assembly was later formed in June 1789 by the Third Estate, the clergy chose to join them, perpetuating the destruction of the Estates General as a governing body. The National Assembly began to impose social and economic reforms. The legislation approved on 4 August 1789 abolished the authority of the Church to impose tithes. In an effort to overcome the financial crisis, the Assembly declared, on 2 November 1789, that the property of the Church was "at the disposal of the nation". They use this property to support a new currency, assignat. Thus, the nation now also takes on the responsibility of the Church, including paying pastors and caring for the poor, the sick and orphans. In December, the Assembly began selling the land to the highest bidder to increase revenue, effectively lowering the value of the assignat by 25% within two years. In the fall of 1789, the law abolished monastic promises and on 13 February 1790 all religious orders were dissolved. The monks and nuns are encouraged to return to private life and a few eventually marry.
The Priest's Civil Constitution, ratified on 12 July 1790, transformed the remaining clergy into state employees. It establishes an electoral system for priestly and bishop's parishes and establishes a level of payment for the clergy. Many Catholics object to the electoral system for effectively rejecting the Pope's authority in Rome over the French Church. In October, a group of 30 bishops wrote a declaration saying they could not accept the law, and this protest also sparked civil opposition to the law. Finally, in November 1790, the National Assembly began requiring an oath of allegiance to the Civil Constitution of all members of the clergy. This led to a split between the priests who sworn the necessary and accepted the new arrangements and those who remained loyal to the Pope. Priests who swear an oath are indicated as 'constitutional', they do not take the oath of an 'uninteresting' or 'refractory' priest. Overall, 24% of the national clergy took the oath. This decree strengthens the resistance to state interference with the church, especially in western France such as in Normandy, Brittany and Venden, where few priests take oaths and civilians turn against the revolution.
Extensive rejection led to laws against the clerics, "forcing them into exile, forcibly deporting them, or executing them as traitors". Pope Pius VI has never accepted the Pastor's Civil Constitution, further isolating the Church in France.
The new Republican Calendar was founded in 1793, with a 10-day week which makes it very difficult for Catholics to remember Sundays and saints. Workers complained it reduced the number of first days-weeks from 52 to 37.
During the Reign of Terror, extreme de-Christianization took place, including the imprisonment and massacres of priests and the destruction of churches and religious images throughout France. An attempt was made to replace the Catholic Church altogether, with civil festivals replacing religions. The establishment of the Cult of Reason is the last step of radical de-Christianization. These events caused widespread disillusionment with the Revolution and the uprisings in France. Locals often reject de-Christianisation by attacking revolutionary agents and hiding hunted clerk members. Finally, Robespierre and the Public Security Committee were forced to denounce the campaign, replacing the Cult of Reason with the deist but still non-Christian Cult of the Supreme Being. The 1801 Concordat between Napoleon and the Church ended the de-Christianization period and established the rule for the relationship between the Catholic Church and the French State that lasted until it was annulled by the Third Republic through the separation of church and state on 11 December. 1905. The Church's persecution led to a counter-revolution known as the Rebellion in Venden e.
Historians Lynn Hunt and Jack Censer argue that some French Protestants, Huguenot, want an anti-Catholic regime, and that Enlighten thinkers such as Voltaire helped ignite this annoyance. Enlightenment philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, for example, has informed French citizens that "it is clearly contrary to the laws of nature... that a handful of people should feast upon superfluity while many hungry want wants." Historian John McManners writes, "In the eighteenth century, French thrones and altars were generally spoken of as a close alliance, their simultaneous collapse... one day will provide the ultimate proof of their interdependence."
Intrigue and radicalism
Fractions in the Assembly began to clarify. Aristocrat Jacques Antoine Marie de CazalÃÆ'¨s and abbà ©  © Jean-Sifrein Maury led what came to be known as the right wing, opposition to the revolution (the party sits on the right side of the Assembly). The 'democratic Royalist' or 'monarchiens', allied with Necker, tend to organize France along lines similar to the British constitutional model; they include Jean Joseph Mounier, Comte de Lally-Tollendal, comte de Clermont-Tonnerre, and Pierre Victor Malouet, comte de Virieu.
"National Party", representing center or center-left assemblies, including HonorÃÆ'Â © Mirabeau, Lafayette, and Bailly; while Adrien Duport, Barnave and Alexandre Lameth represent a rather extreme view. Almost alone in radicalism on the left is the lawyer of Arras Maximilien Robespierre. AbbÃÆ'Ã… © SieyÃÆ'¨s took the lead in proposing legislation in this period and managed to form a consensus for some time between the political center and the left. In Paris, various committees, mayors, representative assemblies, and individual districts claim independent authorities from others. The increasingly middle-class National Guard under Lafayette is also slowly emerging as a force in its own right, just like any other homemade assemblies.
The Assembly abolished the symbolic equipment of Ancien Rà © gime - armorial bearings, mascots, etc. - increasingly alienating the more conservative nobles, and added to the ranks of ÃÆ' © migrà © s . On July 14, 1790, and during the next few days, crowds at the Champ de Mars celebrated the anniversary of the collapse of Bastille with FÃÆ'ªte de la FÃÆ' © ÃÆ'ationÃ, ration ; Talleyrand performs mass; participants swearing "loyalty to race, law, and king"; Kings and royal families are actively participating.
Voters initially selected the Real-General members to serve for one year. However, under the terms of the Tennis Court Oath, the communes have bind themselves to meet continuously until France has a constitution. The right-wing element now argues for a new election, but Mirabeau wins, insisting that the status of the assembly has changed fundamentally, and that no new election has to be made before finalizing the constitution.
By the end of 1790, the French forces had been in great turmoil. The military officers' corps consisted mostly of nobles, who found it increasingly difficult to maintain order in the ranks. In some cases, soldiers (withdrawn from the lower classes) have turned against their aristocratic commanders and attacked them. In Nancy, General Bouillà © succeeded in bringing down such a rebellion, only to be accused of being anti-revolutionary for doing so. These and other such incidents trigger mass desertion as more officers defect to other countries, leaving scarcity of experienced leadership in the army.
This period also saw the emergence of political "club" in French politics. The most important of them is the Jacobin Club; 152 members were affiliated with Jacobin on August 10, 1790. The Jacobin community began as a broad general organization for political debate, but as it grew in members, factions developed with very different views. Some of these factions decided to form their own clubs, such as the Club of '89.
Meanwhile, the Assembly continues to work on developing the constitution. A new judicial organization makes all magistrates temporary and independent of the throne. The legislators abolished offices, except for the monarchy itself. The jury trial begins for a criminal case. The king will have the unique power to propose war, with the legislature then deciding whether to declare war. The Assembly removes all internal trade barriers and suppresses guilds, stewardship, and workers' organizations: every individual has the right to trade through the purchase of licenses; strike becomes illegal.
Royal Flights to Varennes
Louis XVI is increasingly anxious about the direction of the revolution. His brother, Comte d'Artois and his queen, Marie Antoinette, urged a stronger stance against the revolution and support for ÃÆ' Â © migrÃÆ'Â © s, while he refused any course that would see him openly aligned to foreign powers against the Assembly. Finally, fearing for his own safety and for his family, he decided to escape from Paris to the Austrian border, convinced of the loyalty of the border garrison.
Louis threw his fate with General Bouillà ©, who condemned the emigration and the Assembly, and promised him protection and support in his camp in MontmÃÆ' © dy. On the night of June 20, 1791 the royal family left the Tuileries Palace dressed as servants, while their maids dressed as nobles.
However, the next day, the King was recognized and arrested at Varennes and returned to Paris. The temporary assembly suspends the King. She and Queen Marie Antoinette remain in custody. King's flights had a huge impact on public opinion, turning further popular sentiments against the clergy and nobles, and building momentum for the institution of constitutional monarchy.
Completing the constitution
Since most of the Assemblies still favored a constitutional monarchy rather than a republic, various groups reached a compromise that made Louis XVI nothing more than a puppet: he was forced to swear to the constitution, and a decree states that taking an oath, leading troops for the purpose of fighting over the nation, or allowing anyone to do so on their behalf will cause the release.
However, Jacques Pierre Brissot composed a petition, insisting that in the eyes of Louis XVI's deposed nation since its flight. A large group of people gathered at Champ de Mars to sign the petition. Georges Danton and Camille Desmoulins gave a fiery speech. The Assembly asked the city government to "maintain public order". The National Guard under Lafayette's command faced the crowd. The soldiers respond to a barrage of rocks by firing at the crowd, killing between 13 and 50 people. The incident caused Lafayette and his National Guard to gain much public support.
After the massacre, authorities closed many patriotic clubs, as well as radical newspapers such as Jean-Paul Marat L'Ami du Peuple . Danton fled to England; Desmoulins and Marat are hiding.
Meanwhile, in August 1791, new threats emerged from abroad: the King's brother in the palace of the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II, King Frederick William II of Prussia, and the Charles-Philippe's brother, Comte d'Artois, issued the Pillnitz Declaration , declared their intention to bring the French king in a position "to consolidate the basis of the monarchist government" and that they were preparing their own troops for action, hinting at the French invasion on behalf of the King.
Although Leopold himself attempted to avoid war and made a declaration to satisfy the Comte d'Artois and others ÃÆ' © migrà ©  © s, the reaction in France was very fierce. The French did not express respect for the foreign king's orders, and the threat of force only accelerated their militarization.
Even before Aviation to Varennes, members of the Assembly have decided to deter themselves from the legislative body that will replace them, the Legislative Assembly. They are now collecting various constitutional laws they have broken into a constitution, and handed them over to the recently restored Louis XVI, who received it, writing "I am involved to keep it at home, to defend it against all attacks from abroad, and to cause his execution with all means in my hands. "The King addressed the Assembly and received a standing ovation from the members and audience. With this capstone, the National Constituent Assembly adjourned its final hearing on September 30, 1791.
The Legislative Assembly (Oct.1791- Sept.1792)
The Legislative Assembly first met on 1 October 1791, elected by 4 million men - of a population of 25 million - who paid a certain minimum tax amount. Under the Constitution of 1791, France will serve as a constitutional monarchy. The king must share power with the elected Legislative Assembly, but he retains the royal veto and the ability to elect ministers. Initially, the King vetoed a law threatening to migrate with death and who decided that any non-juring priest must take in eight civilian oaths mandated by the Pastor's Civil Constitution. For a year, such a dispute will lead to a constitutional crisis.
At the end of 1791, a group of Assembly members who spread the war against Austria and Prussia were, after several statements of politician Maximilien Robespierre, hereafter referred to as 'Girondin', though not all of them actually originated in the southern province of Gironde. A group around Robespierre - later indicated as 'Montagnard' or 'Jacobin' - begged against the war; the clash between these groups will harden and heat up within the next 1½ years.
In response to the August 1791 war threat from Austria and Prussia, the leaders of the Assembly saw such wars as a means to strengthen support for their revolutionary government, and the French and the Assembly thought they would win the war against Austria and Prussia. On April 20, 1792, France declared war on Austria. The end of April 1792, France invaded and conquered the Austrian Netherlands (roughly Belgium and Luxembourg now).
The failure of a constitutional monarchy
The Legislative Assembly changed into a chaos before October 1792. Francis Charles Montague concluded in 1911, "In an attempt to rule, the Assembly failed altogether, leaving empty treasury, uninformed and naval troops, and those who were humiliated by the success. riots. "
Lyons argued that the Constituent Assembly had liberal, rational, and individualistic goals that seemed to have been largely achieved in 1791. However, it failed to consolidate the revolutionary gains, which continued with increasing momentum and increasing radicalism until 1794. Lyons identified six reasons for this escalation. First, the king did not accept restrictions on his power, and mobilized the support of the foreign king to reverse it. Second, attempts to overthrow the Roman Catholic Church, sell its land, close its monasteries and charitable operations, and replace it with an unpopular replacement system causing deep concern among the pious and the peasantry. Thirdly, the economy is heavily disadvantaged by the issuance of an increasing number of banknotes ( assignats ), which causes more inflation; the price increase is hurting the urban poor who spend most of their income on food. Fourth, rural farmers demand exemption from the heavy tax system and contributions to local landowners. Fifth, the working class of Paris and other cities - sans-culottes - resents the fact that property owners and professionals have taken all the spoils of the Revolution. Finally, foreign powers threatened to overthrow the Revolution, which responded with systematic extremism and violence in its own defense.
Constitutional crisis
In the summer of 1792, all of Paris opposed the king, and hoped that the Assembly would overthrow the king, but the Assembly hesitated. At dawn August 10, 1792, a large group of Parisians and soldiers from all over France, popular militants and militia, backed by the revolutionary Paris Commune, marched in the Tuileries Palace where the king lived, attacked the Palace and killed Switzerland. The guards assigned to protect the king.
At about 8 am the king decided to leave his palace and seek safety with his wife and children in the Assembly gathered in a permanent session at Salle du ManÃÆ'¨ge opposite the Tuileries. The royal family is a prisoner. After 11:00 AM, the rump session in the Legislative Assembly 'temporarily liberated the king from his duty' and thus suspended the monarchy; little more than a third of the deputies were present, almost all of them Jacobins. In reaction, on August 19, the Prussian General, the Duke of Brunswick, invaded France and besieged Longwy.
On August 26, the Assembly decided on the deportation of refractory priests in western France, as "a cause of danger to the homeland", to destinations such as French Guiana. In reaction, farmers in Venden took over a town, in another step toward civil war. What remains of the national government depends on the support of the rebel Commune. With the advancing enemy troops, the Commune sought a potential betrayer in Paris.
On September 2, 3 and 4, 1792, hundreds of Parisians, supporters of the revolution, were angered by Verdun who was captured by Prussian enemies, a revolt in western France, and rumors that prisoners imprisoned in Paris conspired with foreign enemies. , stormed the Paris prison and killed between 1,000 and 1,500 prisoners, many of them Catholic priests but also common criminals. Jean-Paul Marat, Robespierre's political ally, in an open letter on September 3 incited the whole of France to follow the example of Paris; Robespierre keeps a low profile in the event of a murder party. The Assembly and the Paris city council (la Commune) seem to be inactive and barely motivated to stop the unbridled bloodbath.
The communes sent gangs from the National Guardsmen and fà © à © dà © rà © sà © s into prison, and they killed 10 or more victims, mostly non-celibate priests. The communes then sent a circular to other cities in France inviting them to follow this example, and many cities launched their own prisoner and priest massacres in the "September massacre". The Assembly can offer only weak resistance. However, in October, there was a counterattack that accused the agitators, especially Marat, as a terrorist. This leads to a political contest between the more moderate Girondis and the more radical Montagnard in the Convention, with rumors being used as weapons by both parties. The Girondists lost ground when they seemed too peaceful. But the pendulum swung again and after Thermidor, those who supported the massacre were denounced as terrorists.
Chaos continued until the Convention, chosen by universal male suffrage and charged with writing a new constitution, met on 20 September 1792 and became France's new de facto government. The next day remove the monarchy and declare the republic. The following day - September 22, 1792, the first morning of the new Republic - was later adopted retroactively as the beginning of Year One of the French Republican Calendar.
French Revolutionary War and Napoleonic Wars
From 1793 to 1815 France was involved almost continuously (with two short pauses) in the war with Britain and a coalition that changed from other great powers. France's success has led to the spread of the French revolutionary ideals to neighboring countries, and indeed in many Europeans. However, Napoleon's last defeat in 1814 (and 1815) brought a reaction that reverses some - but not all - of revolutionary achievements in France and Europe. The Bourbons were returned to the throne, with brother Louis XVI executed to King Louis XVIII.
The period policy must have led France to a war with Austria and its allies. Kings, many of Feuillants, and Girondin specifically want to fight. The king (and many Feuillants with him) expect the war to increase his personal popularity; he also foresaw the opportunity to exploit every defeat: whether the result will make it stronger. The Girondins wanted to export the Revolution throughout Europe and, by extension, to defend the Revolution in France. The power against the war is much weaker. Barnave and his supporters among the Feuillant people feared a war they thought France had little chance of winning and which they feared would lead to greater radicalization of the revolution. At the other end of the political spectrum Robespierre opposes war for two reasons, fearing that it would strengthen the monarchy and the military at the expense of the revolution, and that it would bring the anger of ordinary people in Austria and elsewhere. The Austrian Emperor Leopold II, Marie Antoinette's brother, may want to avoid war, but he died on 1 March 1792. France preemptively declared war on Austria (20 April 1792) and Prussia joined the Austrian side a few weeks later. The attacking Prussian army faced little resistance until it was examined at the Battle of Valmy (September 20, 1792) and was forced to retreat.
The new-born Republic followed up this success with a series of victories in Belgium and Rhineland in the fall of 1792. The French army defeated Austria at the Battle of Jemappes on 6 November, and soon took over most of Austria Netherlands. This led them into conflict with the British and the Dutch Republic, who wanted to defend the independence of the Dutch south from France. After the king's execution in January 1793, these powers, along with Spain and most other European countries, joined the war against France. Almost immediately, French troops faced defeat on many fronts, and were expelled from their newly conquered territory in the spring of 1793. At the same time, the republican regime was forced to deal with the uprising against its authority in much of western and southern France.. But the allies failed to capitalize on the French divide, and in the fall of 1793 the republican regime had defeated most of the internal insurgency and halted the alliance's progress to France itself.
The deadlock broke out in the summer of 1794 with a dramatic French victory. They defeated the allied forces at the Battle of Fleurus, which led to the full Allied withdrawal from the Austrian Netherlands. They followed with a campaign that swept the allies to the eastern bank of the Rhine and allowed France, early in 1795, to conquer the Dutch Republic itself. The House of Orange was expelled and replaced by the Republic of Batavia, the French satellite country. This victory led to the collapse of the coalition against the French. Prussia, having effectively abandoned the coalition in the fall of 1794, made peace with the revolutionary France in Basel in April 1795, and soon after that Spain also reconciled with France. From the big countries, only England and Austria are still at war with France.
Colonial Rebellion
Although the French Revolution had a dramatic impact in many parts of Europe, the French colony felt a certain influence. As written by the writer Martinican Aimà © © CÃÆ'Ã… © saire, "in every French colony there is a special revolution, which took place at the time of the French Revolution, in harmony with it." The Haitian Revolution (Saint Domingue) became the central example of a slave uprising in the French colony.
First Republic
National sponsorship of National Convention (Sept. 1792-95)/span>
In late August 1792, elections were held, now under male universal suffrage, for the new National Convention, which replaced the Legislative Assembly on September 20, 1792. From the beginning the Convention suffered from a bitter divide between the groups around Robespierre, Danton and Marat , referred to as 'Montagnard' or 'Jacobin' or 'left', and a group referred to as 'Girondins' or 'right'. But the majority of the representatives, referred to as 'la Plaine', are members of both of these antagonist groups and manage to maintain some speed in the Convention's debates.
Soon on 21 September the Convention abolished the monarchy, making France the First French Republican. The newly introduced French Calendar calendar to replace the Gregorian Christian calendar, renamed the year 1792 as the 1st year of the Republic.
With the war against Prussia and Austria beginning in early 1792, France also declared war on the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Dutch Republic in November 1792. In 1793, the Holy Roman Empire, the kings of Portugal and Naples and the Grand-Duke of Tuscany declared war against French.
Louis XVI Execution
In the Brunswick Manifesto, the Imperial and Prussian armies threatened retaliation against the French population if they wanted to counter their progress or restore the monarchy. This, among other things, made Louis appear to conspire with French enemies. On 17 January 1793 Louis was sentenced to death for "conspiracy against public freedom and public security" by a close majority at the convention: 361 chose to execute the king, 288 voted against, and 72 others voted to execute it subject to varieties delaying conditions. Former Louis XVI, now simply named Citoyen Louis Capet (Citizen Louis Capet) was executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793 at Place de la RÃ © © volution , former Place Louis XV , now called Place de la Concorde. Conservatives across Europe were horrified and the monarchy called for a revolutionary war against France.
Economy
As the war worsens, prices rise and sans-culottes - the working poor and the radical Jacobins - commit violence; counter-revolutionary activities began in some areas. This prompted the Jacobin to seize power through a parliamentary coup d'etat, supported by a power committed by mobilizing public support for the Girondis faction, and by exploiting the mafia forces of the Parisian sans-culottes sans-culottes became the effective center of the new government. Policies become much more radical, such as "The Law of the Maximum" setting the price of food and leading to the execution of offenders.
The price control policy is the same as the strengthening of the Committee of Public Security and Terrorism. The committee first attempted to set prices only for a number of grain products, but in September 1793 it expanded "maximum" to cover all foodstuffs and a long list of other items. Extensive scarcity and famine occur. The committee reacted by sending dragons to the countryside to catch farmers and seize the crops. This temporarily solves the problem in Paris, but the whole country suffers. In the spring of 1794, the forced collection of food was not enough to feed even Paris, and the days of the Committee were numbered. When Robespierre went to the guillotine in July 1794, the crowd mocked, "It's really dirty!"
Reign of Terror
'Reign of Terror' is a label used by some historians for (partly) French history between July 1789 and July 1794, but the historian adhered to the label for different periods.
The Public Security Committee is under the control of Maximilien Robespierre, a lawyer, and Jacobin releases the Reign of Terror (1793-94). According to archival records, at least 16,594 people were killed under the guillotine or vice versa after alleged counter-revolutionary activities. A total of 40,000 prisoners accused may have been executed without trial or awaiting trial.
On 2 June 1793, the part of Paris - encouraged by the enragà ©  © s ("angry people") Jacques Roux and Jacques HÃÆ'  © took over the Convention, calling for administrative and political cleansing, which remain low in price for bread, and the limits of the election franchise for sans-culottes alone. With the support of the National Guard, they succeeded in persuading the Convention to capture 31 Girondin leaders, including Jacques Pierre Brissot. Following this arrest, Jacobin took over the Public Security Committee on June 10, installing a revolutionary dictatorship.
On June 24, the Convention adopted the constitution of the first French republic, which is variously referred to as the French Constitution of 1793 or the First Year Constitution. It is progressive and radical in some respects, in particular by establishing universal male suffrage. It was ratified by a public referendum, but normal legal proceedings were suspended before it could take effect.
On July 13, the assassination of Jean-Paul Marat - a leader and journalist Jacobin known for his bloodthirsty rhetoric - by Charlotte Corday, a Girondin, resulted in a further increase in Jacobin's political influence. Georges Danton, the leader of the August 1792 rebellion against the king, who was undermined by some political reversals, was excommunicated from the Committee and Robespierre, "the Unconverted One", became the most influential member as he moved to take radical steps against the domestic Revolution and foreign enemies.
The Reign of Terror ultimately undermines the revolutionary government, temporarily ending the internal opposition. The Jacobins expanded the size of the troops, and Carnot replaced many aristocratic officers with soldiers who had demonstrated their patriotism, if not their abilities. Republican soldiers denounced Austria, Prussia, Britain and Spain. At the end of 1793, the army began to win and the rebellion was defeated easily. The VentÃÆ'Â'se Decrees (February-March 1794) proposed the seizure of the exiles and opponents of the Revolution, and their redistribution to the needy. However, this policy has never been fully implemented.
Three approaches attempt to explain the Reign of Terror imposed by Jacobin in 1793-94. Older Marxist interpretations suggest that Terror is a necessary response to external threats (in other countries going to war with France) and internal threats (traitors within France who threaten to thwart the Revolution). In this interpretation, as Marxist historian Albert Soboul discloses, Robespierre and sans-culottes are heroes to defend the revolution from their enemies. FranÃÆ'§ois Furet argues that foreign threats have nothing to do with terror. Conversely, extreme violence is an integral part of the intense ideological commitment of the revolutionaries - their utopian objective demands the annihilation of the opposition. The Marxist interpretation of Soboul has been abandoned by most historians since the 1990s. Hanson (2009) takes the middle position, recognizes the importance of foreign enemies, and sees terror as a possibility caused by the interaction of a series of complex events and foreign threats. Hanson said the terror was not attached to the ideology of the Revolution, but it made it necessary.
Internal and external wars
The introduction of the national military conscription to the army in February 1793 was a spark that in March made Vendà ©, already rebellious since 1790 due to changes imposed on the Roman Catholic Church by the Pastor's Civil Constitution (1790), ignited a civil war (guerrilla) against the Revolutionary government France in Paris.
North of the Loire, a similar rebellion was started by people called Chouans (royal rebels). In March 1793, France also declared war on Spain, the winners of the Rebellion won several victories against Paris, and the French army was defeated in Belgium by Austria with Dumouriez General of France defected to Austria: the survival of the French Republic is now real danger. Facing local uprisings and foreign invasions in East and West, the most pressing government business is war. On April 6, 1793, to prevent the Convention from losing itself in abstract debates and to streamline government decisions, the Public Affairs Committee was created, as the executive government responsible for the Convention.
Girondins expelled
In April 1793, the Girondins demanded Jean-Paul Marat before the Revolutionary Court for "trying to destroy the people's sovereignty" and "proclaiming plunder and slaughter", referring to his behavior during the September 1792 massacre of Paris. Marat was quickly acquitted but the incident further aggravated the 'Girondins' versus 'Montagnard' dispute in the Convention.
Jacques HÃÆ' Â © bert, a member of the convention that is at hand
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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